i Fitting the bike to the chain: An analysis of transitions towards households’ integration of multi-modal cycling Peter Atkinson Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds Institute for Transport Studies May 2019 ii The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. The right of Peter Atkinson to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. © 2019 The University of Leeds and Peter Atkinson iii Acknowledgements I would like to mention my profound admiration and gratitude to my supervisors Frances Hodgson and Dr Caroline Mullen for their academic guidance during all my PhD research. Their patience, advice and caring guidance were always highly appreciated. To the WRDTC and ESRC finding value in my proposal and for their generosity in funding my research activities at ITS for three and a half years. To Coventry University for allowing me a career-break of three and a half years, and some additional negotiated flexibility to immerse myself in my PhD studies. To the Institute for Transport Studies (ITS) remembering many stimulating seminars, social events, and affordances sanctioned by the supportive and kind staff who work here. To my lovely friends and colleagues at ITS who motivated me with witty discussions, coffee and cake. To my precious son Anthony-Rolf for the many days, evenings and week-ends without dad. To Marianne, my mother for having set me the example of combining hard work and study. To Adriana, my wife and bride for her continuous support, sharing her research enthusiasm and encouragement to persevere in this academic endeavour! Finally, I am grateful to all my research participants for sharing their time and experiences. This multimodal research-ride would not have been possible without them! In memory of a country bike-ride shared in childhood with my father, coming home by train. iv Abstract This study explores the integration of cycling with public transport (Cycling-PT) from a household perspective. Varied household types were reflected in the individuals and families who participated in fourty-seven interviews and small group discussions in Nottingham and Leeds. Participants were recruited at railway stations, bike hubs and via activist and bicycle user groups and other gatekeeper organisations in the voluntary, local authority and education sectors between June 2016 and January 2017. Drawing on literature from the Activity Approach (AA), Mobility Biographies and structuration theory, an interview topic guide was used during individual interviews and small group discussions, supported by visual cue cards. Additional visual elicitation methods supported a second phase of discussions with individuals and families, the participants assembling 3D Styrofoam models of railway stations, using miniature Lego characters to recreate scenarios of journeys when they had combined Cycling-PT. Together, these methods provided insight into the variability of household travel behaviour over the life- course, mental models and reflexive processes. Interviews with eight family groups who took part with their children revealed how Cycling- PT had enabled the everyday activities of families through specialisation of roles for childcare and employment. Benefits to households included access to employment, particularly for people unable to drive. Time-savings over using buses to access rail journeys contrasted with more divided opinions on cost savings. Families integrated taking children to daycare, or school, with regular combined Cycling-PT commutes, carried by bicycle and train with their parents. Adolescent children travelling independently to visit relatives during school holidays. Childcare provision was influential in family travel decisions, collecting children at the end of the working day acting to constrain the combination of Cycling-PT. Parents valued secure storage for bicycles (and other mobility devices) at nurseries, schools, transport hubs and workplaces. Qualitative thematic analysis of interview transcripts using NVivo revealed beliefs and related to physical activity shared within households that had motivated the combination of cycling with PT. Participants associated improved mood with the integration of cycling with PT, the combined modes enabling the transition between work or study and household activities. Bicycle parking at PT hubs complemented carriage of bicycles on board trains to enable a full range of activities to be achieved. Workplace facilitation included flexible, or negotiated working arrangements, changing facilities, storage and showers for cyclists, salary-sacrifice bicycle purchase schemes and supportive colleagues. These findings have implications for policy, transport design, and offer directions for future research. v Contents 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Multimodality and intermodality ........................................................................ 1 1.2 Structure of thesis ............................................................................................... 2 2 Literature Review ................................................................................................. 5 2.1 Policy and practice on multimodal integration: .................................................. 5 2.1.1 Regional policies ........................................................................................ 6 2.1.2 Integration of cycling with public transport .............................................. 7 2.2 Who cycles ......................................................................................................... 10 2.2.1 The journey to work ................................................................................ 10 2.2.2 UK differences between recreational and utility cycling ......................... 11 2.2.3 Cycling among men, women and children .............................................. 12 2.2.4 Health and Wellbeing impacts of mobility .............................................. 13 2.3 Structuration theory and the contribution of time geography ......................... 18 2.3.1 The contribution of time geography ....................................................... 18 2.3.2 Structuration Theory as a lens for exploring Cycling-PT .......................... 19 2.3.3 Identity and mobility ............................................................................... 21 2.4 The Household Lifecycle Stages ........................................................................ 25 2.4.1 The household as unit of observation ..................................................... 25 2.4.2 Households of difference and change ..................................................... 26 2.4.3 Household transitions, life course events and changes in travel mode 27 2.4.4 Biographical domains and contextual definitions ................................... 29 2.4.5 Gendered differences and travel options within households ................. 32 2.5 Towards a conceptualisation of scheduling activity .......................................... 34 2.5.1 Organisation of household activities ....................................................... 34 2.5.2 The Activities Approach ........................................................................... 35 2.5.3 Travel as activity and the mobilities turn ................................................ 37 2.5.4 Intra- and inter-household effects on travel behaviour .......................... 39 2.6 Conclusions: existing knowledge, gaps and opportunities ............................... 43 3 Research Methodology....................................................................................... 46 3.1 Research design ................................................................................................. 47 3.1.1 Biographic methods ................................................................................. 47 vi 3.1.2 Ethical and other considerations that influence the research design ..... 48 3.2 Identification of methodology ........................................................................... 49 3.2.1 Brief consideration of alternatives chosen .............................................. 49 3.2.2 Target sample .......................................................................................... 50 3.2.3 Pilot study activities ................................................................................. 50 3.2.4 Study locations ......................................................................................... 50 3.3 Forms and protocols .......................................................................................... 52 3.3.1 Interview protocol ................................................................................... 52 3.3.2 Publicity materials .................................................................................... 52 3.3.3 Household demographic questionnaire .................................................. 52 3.4 Detailed data collection procedures .................................................................. 52 3.4.1 Recruitment process