University of Aiberta Women in Elite Disability Sport: Multidimensional Perspectives Lisa Marie Olenik O A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation Edmonton, Alberta Fa11 1998 National Library Bibliothèque nationale du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellingtm Ottawa ON K1A ON4 Ottawa ON K1A ON4 Canada Canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accorde une Licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to ~ialiothe~uenationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distniuer ou copies of this thesis in microforni, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fkom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or othenivise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. When 1 do not see plurality stressed in the very structure of a theory, 1 know that 1will have to do lots of acrobatics - of the contortionist and the walk-on-tightrope kind - to have this theory speak to me without allowing the theory tu distort me in my complexity. Mana Lugones Abstract There is a marked under-representation of women participating at both the athletic and administrative levels of disability sport. Feminist discussion in this area has assumed that this iack of women in elite disability sport is because of restrictive power stmctures and systemic barriers to participation. This research examined the multitude of perceptions that women hold while involved in disability sport as athletes, administraton, and active participants. This research comprised four separate studies which were distinguished by the diverse theoretical assurnptions upon which they were based. The fmt study used grounded theory to select themes for merinquiry, while the second provided a critical lens upon which to base policy recommendations. Relativism and the context of knowledge production in the world of disability spoa were highlighted in the last two studies. Qualitative data were collected using in-depth interviews and descriptive statistics were reported. The research was lirnited to athletes and administrators fiom North America and Western Europe. Research participants included five males and five fernales in the fist study, 5 Winter Paraiympic female athletes in the second study, 20 Summer Paraiympic female athletes in the third study, and 20 female administrators in the fouah study. Specifically, research participants were asked about their initiation into disability sport, their sustainment as participants, and hally what might deter or disallow their continued involvement. Important findings were discussed in each snidy, and were surnmarized in the final chapter. The most substantive issues revealed within and arnong the four studies were distilled into the following: 1. The knowledge generated by the institution of elite disability sport was reproducing socially constmcted defmitions of the athlete with a disability as different. Disability itself was a barrier to be overcome through sport, rather than being integrated into the athlete and her athleticism. 2. Female athletes were not socialized into elite disability sport via the disability sport organizations, physical education, or youth sport, unlike the able-bodied population. 3. Normalization theory or norrning the non-standard in disability sport was being applied as a source of legitimation for elite disability sport. 4. Disability sport by its definition and organization has privileged the disability rather than the spoa and restricted the female athlete fiom expressing her athleticism. 5. The female athletes were operating with a different understanding of competitive opportunity than were the sport organizations. Specifically, disability sport administrators believed they were facilitating access to sport, while the female athletes' expenence was constrained by a lack of competitive oppomuiities. 6. The female athlete did not feel she was heard by sport organizers, nor did she feel she had access to the power structures which govem disability sport. 7. Female athletes and female administrators shared a "love of sport" for its inûinsic value and not its rehabilitative value. 8. Elite sport participation actively detemed the female athlete with a disability fom participating by not allowing her the power to shape the forces that shape her. These hdings challenge the assumptions and "cornmon sense" notions that have prevailed in disability sport since its inception. It was detennined that these assumptions were socially constmcted, sustained, and reinforced through use of theory and practice and were not grounded in the "athlete" or athletic behavior. (Key Words: athlete, female, disability, sport, administrator, feminist) Dedication To the wornen in my life. To the teachers, students, colleagues, grandmothers, aunts, cousins and fnends. To rny mother - for rnaintaining our center of the world. To my sister - for willing me safe and conspinng against al1 interlopes. To the athletes - for giving us al1 a hope. Acknowledrrement The preparation of this thesis has been a rnulti-dimensional task. 1would not have been able to complete the research without the able support of many people and institutions. 1 would like to acknowledge and express my appreciation for some of them. First, The University of Alberta for my Dissertation Fellowship which allowed me the fkeedorn to travel and immene myself in the text of my infonnants for one entire year. Special thanks are due to the Rick Hansen Centre family. 1tmly felt a sense of place and community during my tenure at the Centre. Thank you for listening, critiquing, arguing and supporting this research on so many levels. Dr. Robert Steadward inîroduced me to the Paralyrnpic Movement, supervised my doctoral dissertation and continues to be a generous source of support and encouragement. I appreciate hirn for his unwavering dedication to this work and others like it. His mentoring has taught me that ûue authority cornes fkom the ability to ask the questions, not from having al1 of the answen. 1 have also benefited immeasurably from Dr. Trevor Williams' howledge of social theory and its application to adapted physical activity. Thank you Trevor, for your astute observations and insight regarding the scientific cannon infoming our field. The final edits would not have been possible without the review and recommendations of my colleagues at Huntingdon College. 1am especially indebted to Dr. Gregory Salyer for his critical eye and feedback during the final revisions. I owe special gratitude to Mr. Ewen Nelson who supported my efforts physically, intellectually, socially, emotionally, and spiritually. Without bis attention and encouragement this research would be unfinished. Similarly, 1owe an incredible debt to the informants, athletes and administrators, who allowed me into their Iives, answered rny questions, and so generously conaibuted to the discourse surrounding many tough and complex issues. You have taught me much about courage, perseverence and the need to transcend what restricts our imagination. And finally, 1 want to thank Mr. Edward L. Olenik who taught me to throw hard, knowing that eventually 1would hit the target. He who stands on tiptoe doesn't stand firm. He who rushes ahead doesn't go far. He who tries to shine dims his own iight. He who defines himself can't really know who he really is. He who has power over others can't empower himself. He who clings to his work will create nothing that endures. If you want to accord with the Tao, just do your job, then Iet go. Tao Te Ching Table of Contents CHAPTERI ........................................................ 1 Introduction ..................................................... 1 Paper Format (Project Evolution) .............................. -3 Historical Context ..........................................-5 Paralympic History .................................... 5 Theoretical Framework and Methodology ........................ 7 ParadigrnShifi .............................................II Feminist Inquiry ............................................ 14 Teminology ............................................... 17 Data Analysis .............................................. 21 References ................................................ 26 CHAPTER2 .......................................................... 30 Gendered Perceptions of Disability in Relation to Sport and Physical Activity ....................,.,.........,............*.......... 30 Introduction ............................................... 30 Theoretical Context ......................................... 33 Informants ................................................ 36 Method ................................................... 37 Resuits ................................................... 40 Normalcy ........................................... 42 Independence ........................................ 44 Choice .............................................45