Carbon Capture and Storage Edited by José Carlos Magalhães Pires Printed Edition of the Special Issue Published in Energies www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Carbon Capture and Storage Carbon Capture and Storage Special Issue Editor Jos´e Carlos Magalh˜aes Pires MDPI • Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade Special Issue Editor Jose´ Carlos Magalhaes˜ Pires University of Porto Portugal Editorial Office MDPI St. Alban-Anlage 66 4052 Basel, Switzerland This is a reprint of articles from the Special Issue published online in the open access journal Energies (ISSN 1996-1073) from 2018 to 2019 (available at: https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies/special issues/Carbon Capture Storage) For citation purposes, cite each article independently as indicated on the article page online and as indicated below: LastName, A.A.; LastName, B.B.; LastName, C.C. Article Title. Journal Name Year, Article Number, Page Range. ISBN 978-3-03921-399-3 (Pbk) ISBN 978-3-03921-400-6 (PDF) c 2019 by the authors. Articles in this book are Open Access and distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. The book as a whole is distributed by MDPI under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons license CC BY-NC-ND. Contents About the Special Issue Editor ...................................... vii Preface to ”Carbon Capture and Storage” ................................ ix Carlos V. Miguel, Ad´elio Mendes and Lu´ıs M. Madeira An Overview of the Portuguese Energy Sector and Perspectives for Power-to-Gas Implementation Reprinted from: energies 2018, 11, 3259, doi:10.3390/en11123259 ................... 1 Mari Voldsund, Stefania Osk Gardarsdottir, Edoardo De Lena, Jos´e-Francisco P´erez-Calvo, Armin Jamali, David Berstad, Chao Fu, Matteo Romano, Simon Roussanaly, Rahul Anantharaman, Helmut Hoppe, Daniel Sutter, Marco Mazzotti, Matteo Gazzani, Giovanni Cinti and Kristin Jordal Comparison of Technologies for CO2 Capture from Cement Production—Part 1: Technical Evaluation Reprinted from: energies 2019, 12, 559, doi:10.3390/en12030559 .................... 21 Stefania Osk Gardarsdottir, Edoardo De Lena, Matteo Romano, Simon Roussanaly, Mari Voldsund, Jos´e-Francisco P´erez-Calvo, David Berstad, Chao Fu, Rahul Anantharaman, Daniel Sutter, Matteo Gazzani, Marco Mazzotti and Giovanni Cinti Comparison of Technologies for CO2 Capture from Cement Production—Part 2: Cost Analysis Reprinted from: energies 2019, 12, 542, doi:10.3390/en12030542 .................... 54 Hong-Hua Qiu and Lu-Ge Liu A Study on the Evolution of Carbon Capture and Storage Technology Based on Knowledge Mapping Reprinted from: energies 2018, 11, 1103, doi:10.3390/en11051103 ................... 74 Claudia Cristina Sanchez Moore and Luiz Kulay Effect of the Implementation of Carbon Capture Systems on the Environmental, Energy and Economic Performance of the Brazilian Electricity Matrix Reprinted from: energies 2019, 12, 331, doi:10.3390/en12020331 .................... 99 Gaohuan Liu and Zhonghe Zhao Analysis of Carbon Storage and Its Contributing Factors—A Case Study in the Loess Plateau (China) Reprinted from: energies 2018, 11, 1596, doi:10.3390/en11061596 ...................117 Il Hong Min, Seong-Gil Kang and Cheol Huh Instability Analysis of Supercritical CO2 during Transportation and Injection in Carbon Capture and Storage Systems Reprinted from: energies 2018, 11, 2040, doi:10.3390/en11082040 ...................135 Rong Li, Xiao-Sen Li, Zhao-Yang Chen, Yu Zhang, Chun-Gang Xu and Zhi-Ming Xia Anti-Agglomerator of Tetra-n-Butyl Ammonium Bromide Hydrate and Its Effect on Hydrate- Based CO2 Capture Reprinted from: energies 2018, 11, 399, doi:10.3390/en11020399 ....................154 v About the Special Issue Editor Jose´ Carlos Magalhaes˜ Pires graduated in Chemical Engineering from the Faculty of Engineering of Porto University (FEUP) in 2004 with a final classification of 16. He worked in two chemical companies (SunChemical and Tagol) and then started his PhD in Environmental Engineering in 2006 at FEUP. From 2010 to 2016, he was a postdoctoral researcher in the area of environmental applications of microalgal cultures, focusing on the integration of processes to reduce operational costs and environmental impact. More recently, he was an Invited Assistant Professor (part-time) at FEUP and made a teaching contribution in the Faculty of Engineering of Agostinho Neto University (FEUAN) in Luanda, Angola. His teaching activity comprises several multidisciplinary topics, such as project engineering, chemical fundamentals, and air pollution, among others. JCM Pires received the best student prize from Fundac¸ ao˜ Engenheiro Antonio´ de Almeida in 2005. Due to his scientific outputs of 2017, he received the Scientific Recognition Award at the 2019 FEUP day. JCM Pires has published 55 papers (22 as the first author, two as the single author, 26 as the corresponding author, and 14 as the senior/last author; 27 papers were published independently from his PhD supervisor) in international peer-reviewed journals (SCOPUS h-index = 20). JCM Pires has published three books and 17 book chapters, and his research work has been discussed in 40 international meetings. Since completing his PhD degree, JCM Pires has been a reviewer of 238 papers. He is the principal investigator of two research projects. JCM Pires has completed the supervision of one PhD student, seven Master’s students, and two research fellows. Concerning established international collaborations, he worked in the Institute of Chemical Technology (Prague) for 5 months. He also contacted and established collaborations with researchers in Portugal (LSRE/LCM, CEFT, CIIMAR, and REQUIMTE) and abroad (Univ. of Cambridge, UK; Univ. of Rio de Janeiro and Univ. of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil; and Univ. Sevilla, JRC, Spain; among others). vii Preface to ”Carbon Capture and Storage” Carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas (GHG) due to the dependence of world economies on fossil fuels as an energy source, increasing the levels of CO2 emissions in the atmosphere. This phenomenon is associated with several negative environmental impacts, including climate change and ocean acidification, among others. To mitigate this environmental problem, three options have been proposed: (i) application of carbon capture and storage (CCS) to reduce CO2 emissions; (ii) improvement of energy efficiency; and (iii) the use of noncarbon energy resources (e.g., biomass, solar, and wind energy). The high costs of renewable energies along with the abundance and availability of fossil fuels delay the introduction of these environmentally friendly energy forms. There are also some barriers to changing the technological systems, which are designed around fossil fuel energy. Thus, in the coming years, energy will continue to be obtained mainly from fossil sources. Given this, CCS is the favored technology for stabilizing atmospheric CO2 concentrations. It involves capturing CO2 at the point of generation, compressing it to a supercritical fluid, and then sequestering it. The CCS methodologies comprise three steps: CO2 capture, CO2 transportation, and CO2 storage. CO2 is captured at fixed point sources, such as power plants and cement manufacturing facilities, and different methods are studied with this aim. The most common are absorption, adsorption, separation by membranes, and cryogenic separation. Then, the captured gas mixture is compressed into a liquid and supercritical fluid to be transported by pipeline or ship to the place where it will be stored. The CO2 storage options comprise geological storage, ocean storage, and mineralization. In essence, CCS keeps CO2 out of the atmosphere by capturing it from exhaust gas and injecting it into deep reservoirs that can contain fluids for thousands of years. CCS is an important technological option because it allows societies to maintain their existing carbon-based infrastructure while minimizing the effects of CO2 on Earth’s climate system. However, this technology is still under development. This current book aims to evaluate different perspectives concerning CCS methodologies. Jos´e Carlos Magalh˜aes Pires Special Issue Editor ix energies Review An Overview of the Portuguese Energy Sector and Perspectives for Power-to-Gas Implementation Carlos V. Miguel *, Adélio Mendes and Luís M. Madeira LEPABE—Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; [email protected] (A.M.); [email protected] (L.M.M.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +351-22-508-1519 Received: 12 October 2018; Accepted: 17 November 2018; Published: 23 November 2018 Abstract: Energy policies established in 2005 have made Portugal one of the top renewable power producers in Europe, in relative terms. Indeed, the country energy dependence decreased since 2005, although remaining above EU-19 and EU-28 countries in 2015 (77.4% vs. 62.4% vs. 54.0%, respectively). Data collected from governmental, statistical, and companies’ reports and research articles shows that renewables and natural gas assumed a growing importance in the Portuguese energy mix along time, while oil followed an opposite trend. Recently, the country remarkably achieved a full 70-h period in which the mainland power consumed relied exclusively on renewable