AN ETHNOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF NIITSITAPI PERSONAL NAMES by CAROL GAYE LOMBARD submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS – WITH SPECIALISATION IN SOCIOLINGUISTICS at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF LA BARNES JOINT SUPERVISOR: MR R HEAVY HEAD NOVEMBER 2008 Summary This dissertation examines the uses, functions, and meaningfulness of traditional personal names and naming practices in Niitsitapi (Blackfoot Indian) culture. The current study indicates that Niitsitapi personal names appear to play a major role in capturing and conveying various aspects of traditional Niitsitapi sociocultural knowledge. Niitsitapi personal names thus appear to form an integral part of Niitsitapi oral tradition, and also seem to play a powerful role in establishing and maintaining Niitsitapi conceptualisations of individual, as well as social and cultural, identity. This dissertation supports the position that, in addition to their nominative function, names contain and communicate sociocultural meaning, based on their associations with a wide range of non-linguistic factors which form part of the sociocultural environment within which they are used. The methodological approach stresses the importance of studying personal names in cultural context and strongly emphasises the use of indigenous knowledge as a means of explaining personal naming phenomena from a native cultural perspective. Key terms Onomastics; Personal names; Naming practices; Native American; Niitsitapi; Blackfoot; Ethnoscience; Ethnolinguistics; Names in cultural context; Indigenous knowledge. ii Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................... vi CHAPTER 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Overview ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 The nature, scope, and objectives, of the research ...................................................... 1 1.2 The Niitsitapi people: a brief historical background ................................................... 3 1.2.1 The residential school era .................................................................................... 5 1.3 Niitsitapi oral tradition and the importance of story ................................................... 8 1.4 The story behind the study ........................................................................................ 10 1.5 Clarification of terminology use ............................................................................... 12 1.5.1 ‘Niitsitapi’, ‘Kainai’, and ‘Blackfoot’ ............................................................... 12 1.5.2 ‘Niitsitapi personal names’ ................................................................................ 13 1.5.3 ‘Elders’ ............................................................................................................... 14 1.6 Outline of the dissertation structure .......................................................................... 15 CHAPTER 2: Literature review .............................................................................................. 16 2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 16 2.1 Theoretical perspectives on the meanings and functions of names .......................... 16 2.2 The sociocultural significance of names ................................................................... 20 2.2.1 Communicating social and cultural norms through names ................................ 20 2.2.2 Personal naming and sociocultural/ethnic identity ............................................ 22 2.3 Accounting for cultural context in names research ................................................... 23 2.3.1 An ethnolinguistic approach to names research ................................................. 23 2.3.2 From description to explanation: applying indigenous knowledge in names research ........................................................................................................................ 25 2.3.3 Indigenous knowledge recovery and decolonisation ......................................... 29 2.4 Research in Native American personal names .......................................................... 30 2.4.1 Research in Niitsitapi personal names and naming practices ............................ 31 iii 2.4.2 Niitsitapi oral literature on personal names and naming practices .................... 33 2.5 Summary ................................................................................................................... 36 CHAPTER 3: Methodology .................................................................................................... 37 3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 37 3.1 Ethnolinguistics and participant observation methodology ...................................... 38 3.1.1 Participant observation and the ‘problem’ of local knowledge ......................... 39 3.2 Towards an alternative approach: using local knowledge as an interpretative framework ............................................................................................................................ 41 3.3 Researcher’s participation as ‘learner’: a lesson in Niitsitapi epistemology ............ 42 3.4 Location and duration of field work .......................................................................... 44 3.4.1 Field work location ............................................................................................ 44 3.4.2 Duration of field work ....................................................................................... 46 3.5 Collecting information .............................................................................................. 47 3.5.1 Personal interviews ............................................................................................ 47 3.5.2 Involvement in social activities ......................................................................... 50 3.5.3 Use of library materials and museum archives .................................................. 51 3.6 Interpretative/explanatory methods ........................................................................... 51 3.7 Evaluating the methodology ...................................................................................... 52 3.7.1 Weaknesses ........................................................................................................ 52 3.7.2 Advantages of the methodology ........................................................................ 54 3.8 Summary ................................................................................................................... 55 CHAPTER 4: Names tell us stories: learning about Niitsitapi personal names ..................... 57 4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 57 4.1 Names tell us stories: learning about Niitsitapi personal names ............................... 58 4.2 Summary ................................................................................................................... 82 CHAPTER 5: Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 86 5.0 Overview ................................................................................................................... 86 iv 5.1 The sociocultural significance of Niitsitapi personal names ..................................... 86 5.2 Contribution to onomastics research ......................................................................... 91 5.3 How the research serves local interests ..................................................................... 93 5.4 Fostering cross-cultural dialogue in social science research ..................................... 95 5.5 Sociopolitical aspects of the study ............................................................................ 96 5.6 Accounting for the spiritual dimensions of Niitsitapi personal names: some wider implications .......................................................................................................................... 97 5.7 Limitations of the study and recommendations for further research ........................ 99 5.8 Summary ................................................................................................................. 101 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 104 APPENDIX 1: Glossary of terms ......................................................................................... 113 APPENDIX 2: A description of my own Niitsitapi naming ceremony ................................ 116 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Financial assistance for the research that is presented in this dissertation has come in the form of a three year bursary that was awarded to me by The University of South Africa and a grant given by The American Philosophical Society’s Lewis and Clark Fund for Exploration and Research. I thank both of these institutions for lending their support to this research project. I would also like to extend my heartfelt thanks to the Niitsitapi