The Evolution of Regional Awareness and Regionalism in Southeast Asia

The Evolution of Regional Awareness and Regionalism in Southeast Asia

THE EVOLUTION OF REGIONAL AWARENESS AND REGIONALISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Malaya ITO MITSUOMI of University FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA KUALA LUMPUR 2017 THE EVOLUTION OF REGIONAL AWARENESS AND REGIONALISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Malaya ITO MITSUOMIof THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY University FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA KUALA LUMPUR 2017 UNIVERSIT MALAYA PERAKUAN KEASLIAN PENULSAN Nama: Ito Mitsuomi No. Pendaftaran/Matrik: AHA100001 Nama Ijazah: Ph.D (Sejarah) Tajuk Disertasi: The Evolution of Regional Awareness and Regionalism in Southeast Asia Bidang Penyelidikan: Regionalism in Southeast Asian Saya dengan sesungguhnya dan sebenarnya mengaku bahawa: (1) Saya adalah satu-satunya pengarang/penulis Hasil Kerja ini; (2) Hasil Kerja ini adalah asli; (3) Apa-apa penggunaan mana-mana Hasil Kerja yang mengandungi hakcipta telah dilakukan secara urusan yang wajar dan bagi maksud yang dibenarkan dan apa- apa petikan, ekstrak, rujukan, atau pengeluaran semula daripada atau kepada mana-mana hasil kerja yang mengandungi hakcipta telah dinyatakan dengan sejelasnya dan secukupnya dan satu pengiktirafan tajuk Hasil Kerja tersebut dan pengarang/penulisnya telah dilakukan di dalam Hasi Kerja ini; (4) Saya tidak menpunyai apa-apa pengetahuan sebenar atau patut semunasabahnya tahu bahawa penghasilan Hasil Kerja ini melanggarMalaya suatu hakcipta Hasil Kerja yang lain; (5) Saya dengan ini menyerahkan kesemuaof dan tiap-tiap hak yang terkandung di dalam hakcipta Hasil Kerja ini kepada Universiti Malaya (UM) yang seturusnya mula dari sekarang adalah tuan punya kepada hakcipta di dalam Hasil Kerja ini dan apa-apa pengeluaran semula atau pengunaan dalam apa jua bentuk atau dengan apa juga cara sekalipun adalah dilarang tanpa terlebih dahulu mendapat kebenaran bertulis dari UM; (6) Saya sedar sepunyhnya sekiranya dalam masa penghasilan Hasil Kerja ini saya telah melanggar suatu hakcipta Hasil Kerja yang lain sama ada dengan niat atau sebaliknya, saya boleh dikenakan tindakan undang-undang atau apa-apa tindakan lain sebagaimana yang diputuskan oleh UM. UniversityTandatangan Calon: Tarikh: Diperbuat dan sesungguhnya diakui di hadapan, Tandatangan Saksi Tarikh: Nama: Profesor Madya Dr. Joseph M. Fernando Jawatan: THE EVOLUTION OF REGIONAL AWARENESS AND REGIONALISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA ABSTRACT This study examines the manner in which politicians and intellectuals in four ASEAN founding member countries, namely, Siam/Thailand, the Philippines, Malaya/Malaysia and Indonesia, were aware of a regional consciousness and developed a regional concept. The study uses the conventional historical, chronological and analytical approaches. The time frame of the study is between the nineteenth century and the year 1976. In the nineteenth century the term ‘Southeast Asia’ was born and nationalists in each country became aware of a region in the colonial era, and in 1976 political leaders in the countries declared their goal to an ASEAN community with an ASEAN identity in the First Summit of ASEAN. Malaya While the study argues that Europeans,of especially the British, were quite familiar with the term ‘Southeast Asia’ prior to the Second World War, the concept varied from writer to writer by the 1960s. Nevertheless, the British popular term had seldom been used among politicians and intellectuals in the region. Instead, the royal court in Siam/Thailand has been aware of the region of Asia/East, and identified them as a broad region. On the other hand, islanders in the maritime region had their own regional terms, and since the end of the nineteenth century, intellectuals in the region who accepted a MalayUniversity identity also began to have a regional consciousness based on the area that Malays dwelt. However, after the Second World War all the consciousness shifted to the region of Southeast Asia, which combined the mainland (called Further India before the war) with the maritime (called Malay Archipelago etc.). As the term Southeast Asia was politically used, such as in SEAC and SEATO, the four countries gradually attempted to dilute the politically-coloured term to a softer image through their economic and cultural co-operation, prior to the formation of ASEAN. While ASEAN iii was formed for the economic co-operation, the members strengthened their regional consciousness by embracing political discussions at the same time. To protect their national security, ASEAN countries became the centre to define their own regional concepts since the early 1970s. Consequently, the 1976 ASEAN summit started their project to form and invent an ASEAN community. Key words: Southeast Asia, regionalism, region, ASEAN Malaya of University iv THE EVOLUTION OF REGIONAL AWARENESS AND REGIONALISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA ABSTRAK Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk memahami cara bagaimana para ahli politik dan cendikiawan diempat negara yang mempelopori penubuhan ASEAN iaitu Siam/Thailand, Filipina, Malaya/Malaysia dan Indonesia tentang kesedaran disamping membina konsep serantau menggunakan pendekatan konvesional, sejarah, kronologi dan analitikal. Kajian dibuat untuk tempoh diantara abad ke 19 sehingga tahun 1976. Pada abad ke 19, terma ‘Asia Tenggara’ mula digunapakai dan negarawan disetiap negara mula sedar tentang ‘kawasan’ mereka semasa di zaman penjajahan. Dan pada tahun 1976, para pemimpin politik negara- negara ini telah berikrar untuk bekerjasama merealisasikan penubuhan identiti ASEAN untuk komuniti ASEAN di Persidangan Pertama ASEAN. Malaya Kajian membahaskan tentang masyarakat Eropah, terutamanya rakyat Inggeris yang amat sinonim dengan terma ‘Asia Tenggaraof’ sebelum perang Dunia Ke 2, namun konsep ini berbeza di antara seorang penulis dan penulis yang lain sehingga tahun 1960-an di mana terma yang popular dikalangan rakyat Inggeris ini jarang digunapakai oleh ahli-ahli politik dan cendikiawan serantau. Sebaliknya Mahkamah Diraja Siam/Thailand telah menyedari kewujudan rantau Asia/Timur dan mengiktirafnya sebagai satu kawasan yang lebih besar. Sebaliknya, penduduk-penduduk di pulau-pulau pula memberikan penafsiran terma serantau mereka sendiri. Dan bermula dari penghujung abad ke 19, cendikiawan di rantau ini yang menerimaUniversity identiti Melayu juga mula mempunyai kesedaran serantau berdasarkan kawasan- kawasan yang diduduki oleh orang Melayu. Walaubagaimanapun, selepas Perang Dunia Ke 2, kesemua kesedaran ini telah beralih kepada rantau Asia Tenggara yang menggabungkan tanah besar (dikenali sebagai India Jauh sebelum perang) dengan pulau-pulau (dikenali sebagai Kepulauan Melayu dsb.). Terma Asia Tenggara kemudian telah banyak digunakan diarena politik seperti SEAC dan SEATO, yang menyebabkan empat negara ini berusaha beransur-ansur melenyapkan terma v berbaur politik ini melalui kerjasama ekonomi dan budaya sehinggalah tertubuhnya ASEAN. Walaupun tujuan utama penubuhan ASEAN adalah untuk menjalin kerjasama, negara-negara ini juga pada masa yang sama menguatkan kesedaran serantau dengan berkongsi perbincangan politik. Untuk menjamin keselamatan setiap negara anggota, negara-negara ASEAN telah dijadikan pusat untuk mewujudkan konsep keaslian komuniti serantau mereka sendiri sejak awal tahun 1970-an, yang membawa kepada Persidangan ASEAN pada 1976. Kata kunci: Southeast Asia, regionalism, region, ASEAN Malaya of University vi ACKNOWLDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Joseph M. Fernando for the continuous support of my Ph.D study, for his patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. His guidance greatly helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better supervisior and mentor for my Ph.D study. Besides my supervisor, I would like to express my appreciation to Dr. Danny Wong Tze Ken, who supported me as a referee when I applied for my Ph.D programme. My sincere appreciation goes to Dr. Fujio Hara, who gave me informative comments, and to Professor Dr. Leonard Andaya, who had unforgettableMalaya discussion with me and gave me highly helpful comments. In addition, I have to admit that thereof are many friends who have showered me with help and encouragement. Among them my best friends, Mr. Tay Chee Chong and Mr. Keng Ann Chua have greatly helped me. My many thanks also must go to my family in Tokyo. Last but not least, I would like to thank my elementary school teacher, the late Abe Atsushi, who had a sudden death in 2015. This thesis would not be done without his touching advice. University vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ORIGINAL LITARARY WORK DECLARATION ii ABSTRACT iii ABSTRAK v ACKNOWLDGEMENTS vii TABLE OF CONTENTS viii LIST OF TABLE xii ABBREVIATIONS xiii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Regions and Southeast Asia Malaya 1 Research Questions 10 Objectives of the study of 10 Scope of the study 11 Significance of the study 12 Research Methodology 13 Limitation of the study 14 Literature Review 14 Division of Chapters 27 University CHAPTER 2: EARLY USES AND CONCEPTUALISATION OF THE TERM ‘SOUTHEAST ASIA’ Introduction 29 Terms used in India, China, and Japan 30 The usage of the old terms by the nineteenth century 33 viii The use of the new terms in the nineteenth century 37 Increased popularity of the term ‘South East Asia,’ post-1940s 43 Conclusion 49 CHAPTER 3: EMERGENCE OF A REGIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS IN SIAM/THAILAND AND THE PHILIPPINES Introduction 51 Siam/Thailand Historical background 52 The formation of territory 56 Regional awareness of the Siam kings 62 The League of Nations

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