ARTICLE III JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT CONTENTS Page Section 1. Judicial Power, Courts, Judges ............................................................................... 597 Organization of Courts, Tenure, and Compensation of Judges ...................................... 597 One Supreme Court .................................................................................................... 598 Inferior Courts ............................................................................................................. 599 Abolition of Courts ............................................................................................... 600 Compensation .............................................................................................................. 600 Diminution of Salaries ......................................................................................... 600 Courts of Specialized Jurisdiction .............................................................................. 602 Legislative Courts: The Canter Case ......................................................................... 604 Power of Congress Over Legislative Courts ....................................................... 605 Review of Legislative Courts by Supreme Court ............................................... 606 The ``Public Rights'' Distinction .......................................................................... 607 Constitutional Status of the Court of Claims and the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals .................................................................................................. 610 Status of Courts of the District of Columbia ..................................................... 611 Bankruptcy Courts ............................................................................................... 613 Agency Adjudication ............................................................................................ 615 Noncourt Entities in the Judicial Branch ................................................................. 617 Judicial Power ............................................................................................................................ 618 Characteristics and Attributes of Judicial Power ............................................................ 618 ``Shall Be Vested'' ........................................................................................................ 619 Finality of Judgment as an Attribute of Judicial Power ................................................. 620 Award of Execution ..................................................................................................... 621 Ancillary Powers of Federal Courts ......................................................................................... 623 The Contempt Power .......................................................................................................... 623 Categories of Contempt ............................................................................................... 623 The Act of 1789 ............................................................................................................ 625 An Inherent Power ...................................................................................................... 625 First Amendment Limitations on the Contempt Power ........................................... 627 Due Process Limitations on Contempt Power: Right to Notice and to a Hearing Versus Summary Punishment ................................................................................ 629 Due Process Limitations on Contempt Power: Right to Jury Trial ........................ 630 Due Process Limitations on Contempt Power: Impartial Tribunal ......................... 631 Contempt by Disobedience of Orders ......................................................................... 634 Contempt Power in Aid of Administrative Power .................................................... 634 Sanctions Other than Contempt ....................................................................................... 635 Power to Issue Writs: The Act of 1789 ............................................................................. 636 Common Law Powers of District of Columbia Courts .............................................. 637 Habeas Corpus: Congressional and Judicial Control ............................................... 638 Habeas Corpus: The Process of the Writ ................................................................... 639 Congressional Limitation of the Injunctive Power .......................................................... 641 Injunctions Under the Emergency Price Control Act of 1942 ................................. 643 The Rule-Making Power and Powers Over Process ......................................................... 644 593 594 ART. IIIÐJUDICIAL DEPARTMENT Ancillary Powers of Federal CourtsÐContinued The Rule-Making Power and Powers Over ProcessÐContinued Limitations to This Power .......................................................................................... 645 Appointment of Referees, Masters, and Special Aids ............................................... 646 Power to Admit and Disbar Attorneys ...................................................................... 646 Section 2. Judicial Power and Jurisdiction .............................................................................. 647 Clause 1. Cases and Controversies; Grants of Jurisdiction ............................................ 647 Judicial Power and JurisdictionÐCases and Controversies .................................... 648 The Two Classes of Cases and Controversies .................................................... 649 Adverse Litigants ................................................................................................. 651 Collusive and Feigned Suits ......................................................................... 652 Stockholder Suits .......................................................................................... 653 Substantial Interest: Standing ............................................................................ 654 Citizens Suits ................................................................................................ 655 Taxpayer Suits .............................................................................................. 656 Constitutional Standards: Injury in Fact and Causation .......................... 658 Prudential Standing Rules ........................................................................... 661 Standing to Assert the Constitutional Rights of Others ........................... 662 Organizational Standing .............................................................................. 665 Standing of States to Represent Their Citizens ......................................... 665 Standing of Members of Congress ............................................................... 666 Standing to Challenge Nonconstitutional Governmental Action .............. 668 The Requirement of a Real Interest ................................................................... 670 Advisory Opinion .......................................................................................... 671 Declaratory Judgment .................................................................................. 673 Ripeness ......................................................................................................... 676 Mootness ........................................................................................................ 679 Retroactivity versus Prospectivity ............................................................... 683 Political Questions ............................................................................................... 687 Origins and Development ............................................................................. 688 The Doctrine Before Baker v. Carr ............................................................. 689 Baker v. Carr ................................................................................................ 693 Powell v. McCormack ................................................................................... 694 The Doctrine Reappears ............................................................................... 696 Judicial Review ............................................................................................................ 698 The Establishment of Judicial Review ............................................................... 698 Marbury v. Madison ..................................................................................... 701 Judicial Review and National Supremacy .................................................. 703 Limitations on the Exercise of Judicial Review ................................................. 705 Constitutional Interpretation ....................................................................... 705 Prudential Considerations ............................................................................ 706 The Doctrine of ``Strict Necessity'' ............................................................... 707 The Doctrine of Clear Mistake ..................................................................... 708 Exclusion of Extra-Constitutional Tests ..................................................... 709 Presumption of Constitutionality ...............................................................