View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship Repository COMPETING AND CONFLICTING NARRATIVES: A FRAMING ANALYSIS OF THE PARALYMPIC GAMES IN THE NEW YORK TIMES AND USA TODAY BETWEEN 1996 AND 2013 BY KELSEY LEFEVOUR THESIS Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Recreation, Sport and Tourism in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2014 Urbana, Illinois Master’s Committee: Assistant Professor Scott Tainsky, Chair Professor Monika Stodolska Abstract This thesis examined the print media coverage of the Paralympic Games between 1996 and 2013. The New York Times and USA Today were used as a representative sample of print media coverage in the United States and the time period of the study was selected as it was determined to have been a significant area of development within the Paralympic movement. Through the utilization of framing analysis techniques, this study explored the lens with which readers view the Paralympic Games. By examining the emphasis that is placed on particular angles of issues related to the Paralympic Games, it was sought to gain an understanding of the ways in which media producers influence public meanings and opinions. The three major themes found in this study were the growth of Paralympic sport versus frustration with the lack of progress, legitimacy of Paralympic sport versus differences from “traditional sport” and overcoming obstacles versus maintaining victimhood. This series of conflicting narratives indicate the complex challenge faced by readers of mainstream media in deriving meaning and opinions of the Paralympic Games. ii Table of Contents CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................... 4 Review of Literature ....................................................................................................................... 4 Paralympic Sport in the Media ....................................................................................................... 4 Representation of Disability in Mainstream Media ...................................................................... 12 Impacts of Paralympic Media Coverage ....................................................................................... 19 CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................. 29 Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 29 CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................. 37 Findings ......................................................................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................................. 76 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 76 References ..................................................................................................................................... 84 Tables TABLE 1: Comparison of Olympic and Paralympic Articles Published by Selected American High Circulation Newspapers (02/01/02 to 03/18/02) .................................................................... 5 TABLE 2: Breakdown of Newspaper Articles Used in the Framing Analysis of this Study ....... 36 TABLE 3: Comparison of Olympic and Paralympic Games ........................................................ 54 Figures FIGURE 1: “Super Atleta” logo ................................................................................................... 15 iii CHAPTER 1 Introduction Sport has the ability to shape cultural ideologies and values (Boyle & Haynes, 2000) and these ideologies serve as the basis for societal views of ability. The participation in sport by members of the dominant group is easily understood while those members of marginalized groups use sport as a means of empowerment and as a tool for their own stereotypical representations. These representations are often depicted though mainstream media outlets. The relationship between sport and the media is considered to be symbiotic (Coakley, 2003; Delaney & Madigan, 2009) as each harbor a responsibility for the growth of the other. The media serves as one of the most influential structures concerning the perceptions, opinion, and attitudes of the public (McCann, 1996), and this is apparent when considering the interest surrounding Paralympic sport. The Paralympic Games, the largest sporting competition for people with disabilities (International Paralympic Committee, 2013), exemplify the defiance athletes with disabilities are making on the accepted notions of ability within sport. The relationship between sport and the media reinforces and reproduces the dominant societal ideologies (Trujilo, 2001) thus furthering the accepted discourse of athletes without disabilities existing hierarchically before athletes with disabilities. Mainstream media constructs an image of the growing status of the Paralympic Games and the growing influence on the existing discourse surrounding disability and sport. Researchers have examined issues of representation on an international scale (Schantz & Gilbert, 2001; Schell & Rodriguez, 2001; Smith & Thomas, 2005) and their conclusions have greatly contributed to the narrative surrounding disability and sport. However, there continues to be a 1 gap in the narrative that surrounds American print media, as the accepted cultural and social discourse of sport centers on able-bodied athletes rather than those with disabilities. Many scholars have argued that for people with disabilities, the consistent media representation of attributing a low value and a continuous status as an “outsider” has a lasting internalized impact (Iwakuma, 1997; Smart, 2001). Conversely, researchers have continued to recognize that sport participation by people with disabilities instills confidence and garnish a lasting positive outlook on life (Thomas & Katz, 2001) and that through participation in sport, athletes with disabilities seek to reject their assigned role of invisibility and objectivity (Schell & Rodriguez, 2001). Within each quadrennial, the Paralympics are continuing to grow in size and scope, with an increasing number of participating athletes, countries represented, spectators, and media reach. With this growth, knowledge of the Paralympic movement has continued to spread, reaching potential participants as well as sport fans. The United States has historically had a lack of media coverage concerning the Paralympic Games. While this has been found to be true, research is needed on the coverage that is present in order to understand the material consumers of media are being presented when considering sporting competition for people with disabilities. My purpose with this research is to answer the lingering questions I have about the ways in which athletes with disabilities, specifically Paralympic athletes, are understood within American media. Through my own evolving identification as an athlete with a disability, I have come to recognize and identify with the present shortcomings but I also realize that there are existing narratives that are impacting consumers of mainstream media in the United States. The objectives of this study are to provide an analysis of the print media coverage of Paralympic sport in the United States by utilizing The New York Times and USA Today. This 2 analysis will have a qualitative perspective in order to provide as clear of a depiction of the ways in which the Paralympics are discussed and framed for readers as possible. Additionally, this study will seek to provide a thorough examination of the existing research in the field concerning the inclusion of Paralympic sport in the mainstream media to locate any gaps or alterations in how disability is represented in a sporting context. 3 CHAPTER 2 Review of Literature This literature review is organized into three parts. The first part of the review investigates Paralympic sport in the mass media with a focus on the amount and frequency of coverage and the thematic narratives present within publications. The second section will examine the representation of disability in mainstream media. The final section will examine the impacts of media coverage on the self-identity of the athletes and spectators perspectives of the Paralympic Games. Paralympic Sport in the Media Amount of Paralympic Coverage Historically, newspapers have served as a popular media outlet for following the news and staying informed, and traditionally the sports section has been among the most widely read section by consumers (Boyle & Haynes, 2000). Despite the growth of the Internet, which resulted in the decline of newspaper popularity over the last several decades, the sports sections