A STUDY OF PERCEPTIONS, KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF DESERTIFICATION AND ITS CAUSES AMONG DECISION MAKERS IN NORTHERN NAMIBIA BY DESIDERIUS RAIMUND TSHIKESHO Submitted to Rhodes University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Education in Environmental Education January 1996 ABSTRACT This study was aimed at investigating the perceptions, knowledge and understanding of desertification and its causes among decision makers in northern Namibia. The focus of investigation was on desertification and its major causes as identified in the general literature, viz. deforestation, overgrazing and overcultivation. Particular attention was giyen to the socio­ economic and cultural factors which are behind these perceived 'ecological' causes of desertification. Furthermore, the respondents were also engaged in the generation of solutions to the problem of desertification and its causes. Data collection was based on semi-structured interviews with the regional governors, councillors and chief headmen from the four northern regions. A qualitative approach was adopted for the research and findings are essentially descriptive and qualitative. It is anticipated that the study will make an important contribution to the current debate on desertification in Namibia, specifically with regard to the perceptions, knowledge and understanding of desertification and its causes among the decision makers in northern Namibia. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The researcher would like to thank various persons who directly or indirectly contributed to the completion of this study. Firstly, he would like to express profound gratitude and heart-felt appreciation to Professor Pat Irwin who supervised the study in the most constructive and non­ prescriptive way and who provided tremendous motivation, incredible insights, and guidance during the course of this study. Thanks are also due to Anne Irwin for her massive after-hours commitments to the typing of the draft chapters of the research. Further, the researcher would like to thank the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development for the generous leave extended to him during the writing up of this study. The researcher would also like to thank all the regional Governors ofthe 0-4 regions, together with the regional councillors and chief headmen, who have in their different ways, been of invaluable help during the study. Without their cooperation, the infonnation necessary to complete this study, could not have been obtained and the researcher is grateful to them. Thanks are also due to the Rossing Foundation which has provided financial support for this study, without which it would not have been possible. This study was made possible through support provided by U.S.AID. Namibia under the terms of Grant No. 623/004/A/OO/3016/03. Sincere thanks are further due to the researcher's wife Lovisa and children and to his best friend ElVast Mtota for their patience, encouragement and support during the writing of this thesis. Last but not least, sincere thanks and gratitude to Him who makes all things possible. 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................. "............................... 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................... 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................ ill LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ...................................... " IX LIST OF ACRONYMS USED IN THE TEXT AND REFERENCES ............. Xl CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY .......................... 1 l.1 Introduction . ., 1 l.2 Aims of the study .................................................. 2 l.3 Namibia ......................................................... 3 l.3.1 Position alld physiography .......................................... :: 3 l.3.2 Climate .......................................................... 4 l. 3.3 Population ....................................................... 5 l.3.4 Economy ........................................................ 5 l.3.5 IIistory .......................................................... 5 l. 3.6 Desertification in Namibia ............................................ 7 l.4 The study area (0-4 regions: Oshalla, Omusati, Ohallgwena, Oshikoto) ......... 8 l.4.1 Physical position ................................................... 8 l.4.2 Climate .......................................................... 9 l.4.3 Water resources .................................................. 10 l.4.3.1 Surface water resources. ........................................... 10 ill l. 4.3.2 Groundwater resources ............................................. 11 l.4.4 Soils ........................................................... 11 l.4.5 Vegetation ...................................................... 12 l. 4.6 Population ...................................................... 12 1.5 Outline of the thesis ............................................... 12 - CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE SURVEY AND CONCEPfUAL CLARIFICATIONS .. 13 2.1 Introduction. .. 13 2.l.1 Globalliterature .................................................. 13 2.l.2 Literature specific to Namibia ........................................ 16 2.l.3Literature specific to the study area ................................... 17 2.2 Conceptual clarifications ............................................ 18 2.2.1 Desertification ..................................................... 18 2.2.2 Deforestation .................................................... 22 2.2.3 Overgrazing ...................................................... 23 2.2.4 Overcultivation ................................................. ..24 2.2.5 Perception ..................................................... ~, 25 2.2.6 Knowledge and understanding ........................................ 26 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGy ......................................... 27 3.1 Introduction. 27 3.2 Research approach ................................................. 27 3.3 The research interview .............................................. 28 3.4 The research sample ............................................... 29 IV 3.4.1 The sample size ................................................... 29 3.4.2 Characteristics of research respondents ................................. 29 3.5 Data collection ................................................... 31 3.5.1 Pre-data collection procedures ....................................... 31 3.5.2 Data collection procedures ..................................., ......... 32 3.5.3 Data analysis ..................................................... 33 3.6 Evaluation of research method ....................................... 34 CHAPfER 4: CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING OF DEFORESTATION, OVERGRAZING, OVERCULTIVATION AND DESERTIFICATION. ... 36 4.1 Introduction. 36 4.2 Conceptual understanding of deforestation ............................... 36 4.2.1 Signs and degree of deforestation ..................................... 37 4.2.2 Discussions ...................................................... 38 4.3 Conceptual understanding of overgrazing ............................... 41 4.3.1 Signs and degree of overgrazing ...................................... 42 4.3.2 Discussions ...................................................... 42 4.4 Conceptual understanding of overcultivation ............................. 44 4.4.1 Signs and degree of overcultivation .................................... 45 4.4.2 Discussions ...................................................... 45 4.5 Conceptual understanding of desertification ............................. 48 4.5.1 Signs and degree of desertification ..................................... 49 4.5.2 Discussions ...................................................... 50 v 4.6 Conclusions. .. 53 CHAPTER 5: UNDERSTANDING OF CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES ....... 54 5.1 Introduction ..................................................... 54 5.2 Perceptions of causes .............................................. 54 5.2.1 Perceptions of the causes of deforestation ............................... 54 5.2.1.1 Perceptions of the main uses of wood .................................. 58 5.2.2 Perceptions of the causes of overgrazing ................................ 60 5.2.2.1 Perceptions of the livestock density .................................... 63 5.2.3 Perceptions of the causes of overcultivation .............................. 64 5.2.3.1 Perceptions of fallowing ............................................ 65 5.2.4 Perceptions of the causes of desertification ............................... 67 5.3 Perceptions of consequences ......................................... 71 5.3.1 Perceptions of the consequences of deforestation .......................... 71 5.3.2 Perceptions of the consequences of overgrazing ........................... 73 5.3.3 Perceptions ofthe consequences of overcultivation .......................~. 75 5.3.4 Perceptions of the consequences of desertification ......................... 76 5.4 Perceptions of social/cultural/economic changes in the 0-4 regions ............ 78 5.4.1 Perceptions of the social/cultural/economic changes due to deforestation. ...... 78 5.4.2 Perceptions of the social/cultural/economic changes due to overgrazing ........ 80 5.4.3 Perceptions of the social/cultural/economic changes due to overcultivation ...... 81 5.4.4 Perceptions of the social/cultural/economic changes due to desertification ....... 82 5.5 Conclusions. .. 84 VI CHAPTER6: THE WAY FORWARD ..................................... 86 6.1 Introduction. .. 86 6.2 Ongoing/envisaged