Video game classification in Australia: Does it enable parents to make informed game choices for their children? Julie Ross This thesis is submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Information Technology) Faculty of Science and Technology Federation University Australia University Drive, Mount Helen Ballarat, Victoria 3353 Australia Submitted August 25, 2016 ABSTRACT If Australian video game classification does not warn of all classifiable elements, parents may be making game choices that inadvertently expose their child to content that may be deemed inappropriate. Research shows that classification in the United States of America (USA) does not always warn of all elements, and to date there has been no comparable research in Australia. This research explored issues surrounding video game classification in Australia, and whether parents feel that provides enough information for them to make informed game choices, by asking the following questions: 1. Does video game classification in Australia provide enough information for parents to make informed decisions about what games their children play? 2. What are the factors that may prevent parents from protecting children from inappropriate content in video games? To answer the first question, a content analysis compared the classification given to video games classified ‘MA15+’ in Australia during the years 2009 - 2010 with their overseas counterparts. Results showed that a substantial number of video games in Australia carry different classification information than those overseas. To answer the second question, a mixed-methods questionnaire surveyed parents of children who played video games to explore issues surrounding video game classification, and the role it plays when making game choices for children. A quasi- longitudinal process within the questionnaire explored the effect that more detailed information has on game choices. Results showed that some parents use classification to assist them with choosing games for their child, but when presented with more information some parents will make different choices. Factors which may prevent parents from protecting their child from inappropriate content in video games were also identified. The Protection Motivation Theory underpinning this research was modified to produce the Vigilant Protection Motivation Theory. Overall, this research suggests that parents in Australia may not have enough information to make appropriate game choices. ii STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP Except where explicit reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma. No other person’s work has been relied upon or used without due acknowledgment in the main text and bibliography of the thesis. Signed: __________________________ Signed: __________________________ Date: 25/08/2016 . Date: 25/08/2016 . Julie Ross Dr. Charlynn Miller Ph.D. Candidate Principal Supervisor iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would first like to thank both of my supervisors from the Federation University Australia: Dr. Charlynn Miller of the Faculty of Health, and Associate Professor Peter Vamplew of the Faculty of Science and Technology. They have both provided invaluable guidance and assistance throughout the term of my candidature, helping to keep me on track. I would like to express my particular appreciation to Dr. Peter Vamplew for sharing his knowledge and offering insights into topics surrounding video games. I would also like to thank two people from the Faculty of Science and Technology at the Federation University, Australia, who provided assistance at various points. Firstly, I would like to thank Kylie Turville for providing guidance in completing my Confirmation of Candidature. The assistance she provided was invaluable, offering direction on how to construct the confirmation document. Secondly, I would like to thank Sally Firman for her expertise with information regarding content analysis and validity. I would like to thank the Federation University of Australia (the University of Ballarat at the start of my candidature) for giving me the opportunity to pursue my Ph.D. This has been an amazing journey which has shown me that anything can be achieved with persistence. Finally, I would like to offer my family my sincere thanks, first of all for their patience and understanding of the enormity of this task, and for keeping our world running while I was buried in research. Also to my daughters, with whom I had many discussions exploring issues related to this thesis, and to my son for inspiring me to explore video game classification. Thanks also to my daughter Natasha for creating the images depicting the theoretical models throughout this document. iv STATEMENT OF ETHICS APPROVAL Principal Researcher: Dr Charlynn Miller Other/Student Dr Peter Vamplew Researcher/s: Julie Ross School/Section: SHS Project Number: A13-068 Project Title: Video game classification in Australia: does it enable parents to make informed game choices for their children? For the period: 12/06/2013 to 30/11/2013 Please quote the Project No. in all correspondence regarding this application. REPORTS TO HREC: A final report for this project must be submitted to the Ethics Officer on: 30th December 2013 These report forms can be found at: http://www.ballarat.edu.au/research/research-services/forms/ethics-forms Ms Elanor Mahon Ethics Officer 13 October 2017 Please see attached ‘Conditions of Approval’. v CONDITIONS OF APPROVAL 1. The project must be conducted in accordance with the approved application, including any conditions and amendments that have been approved. You must comply with all of the conditions imposed by the HREC, and any subsequent conditions that the HREC may require. 2. You must report immediately anything which might affect ethical acceptance of your project, including: - Adverse effects on participants; - Significant unforeseen events; - Other matters that might affect continued ethical acceptability of the project. 3. Where approval has been given subject to the submission of copies of documents such as letters of support or approvals from third parties, these must be provided to the Ethics Office before the research may commence at each relevant location. 4. Proposed changes or amendments to the research must be applied for, using a ‘Request for Amendments’ form, and approved by the HREC before these may be implemented. 5. If an extension is required beyond the approved end date of the project, a ‘Request for Extension’ should be submitted, allowing sufficient time for its consideration by the committee. Extensions cannot be granted retrospectively. 6. If changes are to be made to the project’s personnel, a ‘Changes to Personnel’ form should be submitted for approval. 7. An ‘Annual Report’ must be provided by the due date specified each year for the project to have continuing approval. 8. A ‘Final Report’ must be provided at the conclusion of the project. 9. If, for any reason, the project does not proceed or is discontinued, you must advise the committee in writing, using a ‘Final Report’ form. 10. You must advise the HREC immediately, in writing, if any complaint is made about the conduct of the project. 11. You must notify the Ethics Office of any changes in contact details including address, phone number and email address. 12. The HREC may conduct random audits and / or require additional reports concerning the research project. Failure to comply with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007) and with the conditions of approval will result in suspension or withdrawal of approval. vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviation Description ACB Australian Classification Board - the body responsible for classifying films, videos, computer games, and publications in accordance with Commonwealth, State and Territory legislation. BBFC British Board of Film Classification - the body responsible for classifying films in the UK, and video games up until July 2012. CEO Catholic Education Office - the body responsible for the leadership, and management of Catholic schools. DEECD Department of Education and Early Childhood Development - the department responsible for education and early childhood development in Victoria, Australia. DLC Downloadable Content - content available online to supplement a video game including skins, expansion packs and new storylines. DVD Digital Versatile Disc - a type of compact disc that is able to store large amounts of data. ELM Elaboration Likelihood Model - a theory used to explain attitude change when someone takes the central route and accepts the voice of authority, or the peripheral route, where the subject seeks more information. ESRB Entertainment Software Review Board - the body responsible for rating video games in the USA. GAM General Aggression Model - used to explain the effects of media violence on game players. HBM Health Belief Model - used to explain the uptake of health behaviours. IARC International Age Rating Coalition - global rating and age classification system for digitally delivered games and apps. vii Abbreviation Description ISFE Interactive Software Federation of Europe - represents the interests of the video game publishers towards the European Union and international institutions. NCC National Classification Code - the principles upon which the Australian classification guidelines are founded. NICAM Netherlands