THE PARTHIANS This volume provides a comprehensive overview of the history and culture of the Parthian Empire, which existed for almost 500 years from 247 BC to 224 AD. The Parthians were Rome’s great opponents in the east, but comparatively little is known about them. The Parthians focuses on the rise, expansion, flowering and decline of the Parthian Empire and covers both the wars with the Romans in the west and the nomads in the east. Sources include the small amount from the Empire itself, as well as those from outside the Parthian world, such as Greek, Roman and Chinese documents. Ellerbrock also explores the Parthian military, social history, religions, art, architecture and numismatics, all supported by a great number of images and maps. The Parthians is an invaluable resource for those studying the Ancient Near East during the period of the Parthian Empire, as well as for more general readers interested in this era. Uwe Ellerbrock has been studying the Parthian Empire for more than 30 years. His book Die Parther, written with archaeologist Sylvia Winkelmann, was published in 2012 (revised edition 2015). PEOPLES OF THE ANCIENT WORLD This series stands as the first port of call for anyone who wants to know more about the historically important peoples of the ancient world and the early middle ages. Reliable, up- to- date and with special attention paid to the peoples’ enduring legacy and influence, Peoples of the Ancient World will ensure the continuing promin- ence of these crucial figures in modern- day study and research. The Mycenaeans Rodney Castledean The Trojans and their Neighbours Trevor Bryce The Persians Maria Brosius The Neanderthals Stephanie Muller and Friedemann Shrenk The Carthaginians Dexter Hoyos The Greeks, 3rd edition An Introduction to their Culture Robin Sowerby The Huns Hyun Jin Kim The Romans, 4th edition An Introduction Abigail Graham and Antony Kamm The Parthians The Forgotten Empire Uwe Ellerbrock www.routledge.com/ Peoples- of- the- Ancient- World/ book- series/ PAW THE PARTHIANS The Forgotten Empire Uwe Ellerbrock First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Uwe Ellerbrock The right of Uwe Ellerbrock to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing- in- Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data Names: Ellerbrock, Uwe, author. Title: The Parthians: the forgotten empire/Uwe Ellerbrock. Other titles: Parther-die vergessene Grossmacht. English Description: First edition. | New York : Routledge Taylor & Francis Ltd, 2021. | Series: Peoples of the ancient world | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2020043449 (print) | LCCN 2020043450 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367481902 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367473099 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003038559 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Parthians. | Arsacid dynasty, 247 B.C.-224 A.D. | Parthia–History. | Art, Parthian. | Iran–History–To 640. Classification: LCC DS285 .E55413 2021 (print) | LCC DS285 (ebook) | DDC 939/.6–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020043449 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020043450 ISBN: 978- 0- 367- 48190- 2 (hbk) ISBN: 978- 0- 367- 47309- 9 (pbk) ISBN: 978- 1- 003- 03855- 9 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Newgen Publishing UK To my wife Ingrid All human beings are members of one frame, Since all, at first, from the same essence came. When time afflicts a limb with pain The other limbs at rest cannot remain. If thou feel not for other’s misery A human being is no name for thee. Saadi Shirazi Persian Poet (c. 1209 – c. 1291 AD)1 1 This well-known verse of Saadi is woven into a carpet that adorns the wall of the United Nations in New York (www.un.org/ sg/ en/ content/ sg/ statement/ 2012- 08- 30/ secretary- generals- remarks- school- international- relations). CONTENTS Detailed table of contents ix List of figures xv List of tables xxi Image credits xxii Foreword xxiv Glossary of historic place names xxvi 1 The Parthian Empire: a first approach 1 2 History of the great empires in Iran 13 3 History of the Parthian Empire 22 4 The structure of the Parthian Empire 71 5 Vassal states and kingdoms under Parthian influence 103 6 The Parthian Empire and the peoples of Eurasia 115 7 Cities and architecture in the Parthian Empire 125 8 Trade and business in the Parthian Empire 158 viii Contents 9 Insights into social life in Parthia 181 10 Parthian art: art in the Arsacid kingdom 213 11 The Parthian Empire and its religions 254 Bibliography 298 Recommended websites 320 General index 321 Names index 327 Geographical names index 329 DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 The Parthian Empire: a first approach 1 1.1 Documentary sources from within the Parthian world 4 1.2 Greek – Roman – Chinese literary sources 5 1.3 Ancient sources: historical truths or distorted images? 7 1.4 The Parthians: nomads – Hellenes – Iranians? 8 1.5 Geography of the Parthian Empire 10 2 History of the great empires in Iran 13 2.1 The empire of Elam 13 2.2 The Medes and Persians 15 2.3 The empire of the Achaemenids 16 2.4 Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) – the Hellenistic period 18 2.5 The empire of the Seleucids 20 3 History of the Parthian Empire 22 3.1 Phase 1: Development from a Seleucid vassal state to the Parthian Empire: from Arsaces I to Phraates I (c. 247–165 BC) 24 3.1.1 Arsaces I (c. 247–211 BC) 27 3.1.2 Arsaces II (c. 211–191 BC) 28 3.1.3 Phriapatius (c. 191–176 BC) 28 3.1.3.1 Arsaces IV (c. 170–168 BC) 28 3.1.4 Phraates I (c. 168–164 BC) 28 3.2 Phase 2: Expansion of the Parthian Empire: from Mithradates I to Darius of Media Atropatene (c. 165–70 BC) 29 3.2.1 Mithradates I (c. 165/ 164–132 BC) 31 3.2.2 Phraates II (c. 132–27 BC) 32 x Detailed table of contents 3.2.3 Inter- regnal Issue (c. 127 BC) 33 3.2.4 Artabanus I (c. 127–123 BC) – Arsaces X (122–121 BC) 33 3.2.5 Mithradates II (c. 121–91 BC) 34 3.2.6 Gotarzes I (c. 91–87 BC) 36 3.2.7 Orodes I (c. 90–80 BC) 36 3.2.8 Unknown King I (c. 80 BC) and Unknown King II (c. 80–70 BC) 36 3.2.9 Sinatruces (c. 93/ 92–c. 69/ 68 BC) 36 3.2.10 Darius (?) of Media Atropatene (c. 70 BC) 37 3.3 Phase 3: Parthia as a great power: from Phraates III to Vonones II (c. 70 BC–c. 51 AD) 37 3.3.1 Phraates III (c. 70–57 BC) 40 3.3.2 Mithradates III (c. 57–54 BC) 41 3.3.3 Orodes II (c. 57–38 BC) 41 3.3.4 Pacorus I (c. 39 BC) 43 3.3.5 Phraates IV (c. 38–2 BC) 43 3.3.6 Queen Musa and Phraataces, c. 2 BC–4 AD 46 3.3.7 Tiridates I (c. 29–26 BC) 47 3.3.8 Orodes III (c. 6 AD) 48 3.3.9 Vonones I (c. 8–12 AD) 48 3.3.10 Artabanus II (c. 10–38 AD) 49 3.3.11 Tiridates II (c. 35–36 AD) 50 3.3.12 Vardanes I (c. 40–45 AD) and Gotarzes II (c. 40–51 AD) 51 3.3.13 Gotarzes II (c. 40–51 AD) 52 3.3.14 Vonones II (c. 51 AD) 52 3.4 Phase 4: Phases of stability – inner turmoil – decline of the Parthian Empire: from Vologases I (c. 51–79 AD) to Artabanus IV (c. 216–224 AD) 52 3.4.1 Vologases I (c. 50/ 51–79 AD) 56 3.4.2 Son of Vardanes (c. 55–58 AD) = Vardanes II (Sellwood) 58 3.4.3 Vologases II (listed by Sellwood, but did not exist) 58 3.4.4 Pacorus II (c. 75–110 AD) 58 3.4.5 Artabanus III (c. 80–80/ 81 AD) 59 3.4.6 Vologases III (c. 105–147 AD) 60 3.4.7 Osroes I (c. 109–129 AD) 60 3.4.8 Parthamaspates (c. 116 AD) 61 3.4.9 Mithradates IV (c. 129–140 AD) 61 3.4.10 Unknown King III (c. 140 AD) 61 3.4.11 Vologases IV (c. 147–191 AD) 61 3.4.12 Osroes II (c. 190 AD) 62 3.4.13 Vologases V (c. 191–208 AD) 62 3.4.14 Vologases VI (c. 208–228 AD) 63 Detailed table of contents xi 3.4.15 Artabanus IV (c. 216–224 AD) 63 3.4.16 Tiridates III (c. 216 – 224 AD?) 64 3.5 Ardashir I and the newly founded Sasanian Empire 64 3.6 The end of the Parthian Empire – reasons for the downfall 65 4 The structure of the Parthian Empire 71 4.1 The king 72 4.1.1 The ruler’s image as an agent of propaganda 73 4.1.2 The king’s image – iconography on Parthian coins 73 4.1.3 Investiture of the kings 78 4.1.4 Ancestral cult of the Parthian kings – were kings deified as gods? 82 4.2 The nobility 83 4.3 The Parthian army – standing army – Parthian shot 83 4.3.1 War tactics – light cavalry – cataphracts – elephants 85 4.3.2 Weapons – depictions of weapons – finds of real weapons 89 4.3.3 Parthian legionnaires in the service of Rome – Parthian soldiers on the Rhine? 94 4.4 Administrative structure of the empire 95 4.4.1 The Parthian language and the unification of administrative structures in the empire 96 4.5 Parthian queens and marriage policy 97 4.5.1 Clothing of women/of goddesses shown on coins 98 5 Vassal states and kingdoms under Parthian influence 103 5.1 The kingdom of Osrhoene 103 5.2 The kingdom of Commagene 105 5.3 Gordyene 107 5.4 Adiabene and Media Atropatene 107 5.5 Characene 109 5.6 Elymais 110 5.7 Persis 111 5.8 The kingdom of Hatra 112 6 The Parthian Empire and