UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES CORRELATION OF SEX, HEIGHT AND HANDEDNESS WITH ANTHROPOMETRIC FOOT AND HAND MEASUREMENTS OF YOUNG ADULT GHANAIANS BY JOSEPH GYAMERA AKYEAMPONG (10342761) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL ANATOMY DEGREE. DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY JULY, 2017 DECLARATION BY CANDIDATE I hereby declare that this thesis is a product of my own research undertaken under supervision and has neither been presented in whole nor in part for the award of another degree elsewhere. I take full responsibility for any residual flaws in this work. Signature: …………………………….. Date: ..……/………/……… (AKYEAMPONG, JOSEPH GYAMERA) DECLARATION BY SUPERVISORS We hereby declare that the practical work and presentation of this thesis were supervised in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of thesis laid down by the University of Ghana. Principal Supervisor: Signature: ……………………………......... Date: ………/………/……… (Professor Frederick K. Addai) Co-Supervisor: Signature: ……………………………......... Date: ………/………/……… (Professor Clifford Nii Boi Tagoe) i DEDICATION I dedicate this project to God Almighty, my saviour and redeemer, my strength and ultimate source of wisdom and knowledge. He has shown me his powerful hand and gentle heart throughout this academic journey. It is only by his divine protection and divine inspiration that I have been able to complete this program. I also dedicate this project to my parents; Mr. Baffour Otuo Akyeampong and Mrs. Johanna Naana Akyeampong. Dad, you never doubt my abilities and you always give direction and counsel that have shaped my life. You have been truly supportive through this academic journey in more ways than I can count and indeed like you always say, “Believers, shall enjoy”. Nyame nhyira wo na ɔnyɛ wo kɛse. Mum, without you I would not be here. Even after age 57, you found strength and motivation to start and successfully complete a master’s program. If at any point I found no reason to go on, you were my one reason to rise up and make each day count. To my grandfather, Mr. Anthony K. Interkudzie and grandmother Mrs. Elizabeth Interkudzie. You have accommodated me in your home these past few years without any complaint. I love you. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My greatest appreciation goes to God for His provision throughout this research. My deepest gratitude also goes to Prof. Frederick K. Addai (my principal supervisor). I am truly grateful for the pieces of advice and directions that shaped this research. Your mentorship has been outstanding. To Prof. Clifford N.B. Tagoe (co-supervisor), thank you so much for all the recommendations you made to this thesis just so that it would be up to standard. I wish to extend special thanks to all the senior members, technical and administrative staff of the Department of Anatomy for your immense support. I want to say a special thank you to Dr. Saviour Adjenti for his insight and guidance. I am highly indebted to Mrs. Naa Densua Aryeetey and Baffour Owusu Asare also for financial assistance and encouragement. My profound gratitude goes to my fellow research colleagues Ms. Eugenia E. A. Kumaga, Mr. Bright Gabriel Dzotefe and Mr. Herman Akogo. I am filled with a deep sense of gratitude towards my immediate family Mr. and Mrs. Baffour Akyeampong, Ms. Afua Akyeampong, Mr. Felix Akyeampong, Mr. Kweku Akyeampong, Mr. Baffour Akyeampong (Jnr) and Mr. Anthony Brew; for all your prayers and your confidence in me. To Messrs. Seth Yeboah and Othniel James Aryeetey for your motivation when the research got tough; I am in your debt. I am thankful to all who contributed in any way to this research. Special thanks are extended to all students of the College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Korle-Bu who volunteered to participate in the study. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION BY CANDIDATE ................................................................................ i DEDICATION................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ iv LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... viii LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................ xii ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................xv CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................1 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................1 1.0 Sexual dimorphism ................................................................................................2 1.1 Handedness and morphological asymmetries in hands and feet ...........................4 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ...................................................................................6 1.3 JUSTIFICATION ..................................................................................................7 1.4 HYPOTHESIS ......................................................................................................9 1.5 GENERAL AIM ...................................................................................................9 1.6 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES .....................................................................................9 CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................11 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................11 iv 2.0 Brief introduction and history of anthropometry ................................................11 2.1 Embryology, skeletal structure and function of the human foot .........................14 2.2 Embryology, skeletal structure and function of the human hand ........................17 2.3 The architecture and composition of bone ..........................................................22 2.4 Primary Sex Hormones that affect bone structure ..............................................23 2.5 Sexual dimorphism in anthropometric variables .................................................28 2.6 Determination of sex from hand measurements ..................................................30 2.7 Estimation of sex from foot measurements .........................................................33 2.8 Estimation of height from foot measurements ....................................................35 2.9 Determination of height from hand measurements. ............................................37 2.10 Handedness and its association with hand and foot variables .............................40 2.11 Forefoot types ......................................................................................................44 CHAPTER THREE .........................................................................................................46 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS .............................................................................46 3.0 Ethical approval...................................................................................................46 3.1 Methodology .......................................................................................................46 3.2 Measurements of anthropometric variables ........................................................48 3.3 Determination of Handedness .............................................................................54 3.4 Statistical Analysis ..............................................................................................58 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................59 v 4 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................59 CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................99 5 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................99 5.0 Bilateral differences in anthropometric hand and foot measurements ................99 5.1 Sexual dimorphism ............................................................................................100 5.2 Correlation of hand and foot variables with height ...........................................102 5.3 Height prediction from explanatory variables ...................................................104 5.4 Sex estimation ...................................................................................................108 5.5 Determination of handedness. ...........................................................................112 5.6 Association of handedness with standardised foot length and standardised hand length.………………………………………………………………………………...113 5.7 Forefoot types among males and females. ........................................................115 5.8 Summary of findings. ........................................................................................117