‗I Can Be So Much More Than I Think of Myself‘: Girls‘ Sport Participation and Discourses of Power and Agency in Windhoek, Namibia by Valerie Friesen Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Masters of Arts At Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia August 2010 © Copyright by Valerie Friesen, 2010 DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT STUDIES The undersigned hereby certify that they have read and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate Studies for acceptance a thesis entitled ―‗I Can Be So Much More Than I Think of Myself‘: Girls‘ Sport Participation and Discourses of Power and Agency in Windhoek, Namibia‖ by Valerie Friesen in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. Dated: August 13, 2010 Supervisor: __________________________________ Readers: __________________________________ __________________________________ ii DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY DATE: August 13, 2010 AUTHOR: Valerie Friesen TITLE: ‗I Can Be So Much More Than I Think of Myself‘: Girls‘ Sport Participation and Discourses of Power and Agency in Windhoek, Namibia DEPARTMENT OR SCHOOL: Department of International Development Studies DEGREE: MA CONVOCATION: October YEAR: 2010 Permission is herewith granted to Dalhousie University to circulate and to have copied for non-commercial purposes, at its discretion, the above title upon the request of individuals or institutions. _______________________________ Signature of Author The author reserves other publication rights, and neither the thesis nor extensive extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author‘s written permission. The author attests that permission has been obtained for the use of any copyrighted material appearing in the thesis (other than the brief excerpts requiring only proper acknowledgement in scholarly writing), and that all such use is clearly acknowledged. iii Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................... vii List of Abbreviations Used .......................................................................................... viii Acknowledgements ..........................................................................................................ix Chapter One: Introduction ..............................................................................................1 Statement of Problem...............................................................................................1 Purpose of Study......................................................................................................2 Scope of Study.........................................................................................................3 Situating the Researcher..........................................................................................4 Thesis Outline..........................................................................................................4 Chapter Two: Theoretical Framework............................................................................7 Functionalism vs Interactionism .............................................................................7 Structure, Agency and Empowerment ....................................................................9 Sport and Feminisms ............................................................................................12 Theoretical Approach ............................................................................................15 Chapter Three: Literature Review ................................................................................18 Sport as a Tool for Development: Problems and Potential....................................18 Positive Potential: Benefits of Sport for Youth.....................................................19 Sport as Neo-Colonialism? Beyond the ‗Universal Language‘............................22 Ambiguities and Contradictions............................................................................25 Beyond the ‗Level Playing Field‘: Gendered Discourses in Sport........................26 Chapter Four: Research Methods................................................................................31 iv The Physically Active Youth Program..................................................................31 The Participants.....................................................................................................36 Role of the Researcher...........................................................................................37 Data Collection......................................................................................................40 Ethical Considerations...............................................................................40 Recruitment................................................................................................40 The Collection Process..............................................................................41 Data Analysis.............................................................................................42 Trustworthiness..........................................................................................43 Limitations.............................................................................................................44 Chapter Five: The Namibian Context............................................................................45 Namibia: A Background........................................................................................45 Katutura: A Post-Apartheid Township in Windhoek.............................................46 A Story of Stratification: Namibia‘s Post-Independence Economy......................48 Race, Resources, and Examinations: Namibia‘s Education Systems....................51 Discourses of Gender, Homophobia and Hope for the Future in Namibia ...........53 Chapter Six: Culture and Gender Discourses ..............................................................56 ‗Boys Play Serious; Girls Play for Fun: Perceptions of Gender Difference .........56 ‗Balls Are for Boys, We Are Made for Dolls‘: Girls‘ Social Roles and Expectations ..........................................................................................................65 ‗Can‘t You See You‘re a Grown-up Now?‘: Discourses of Gender and Age ......72 Conclusions............................................................................................................77 Chapter Seven: Discourses of Heteronormativity, Sex and Sexuality in Sport.........80 ‗Tomboy and Not a Girl‘: Heterosexism in Namibia..............................................80 v Sex, HIV/AIDS and Girls‘ Bodies........................................................................86 Conclusions...........................................................................................................91 Chapter Eight: Discourses of Employment, Education and Self.................................93 ‗Great Opportunities Might Come If You Play Sport‘: Economic Expectations ..93 ‗If I Drop Out of School‘: Navigating Educational Challenges.............................95 ‗I Changed the Way I Am‘: Discourses of Agency through Sport........................98 Conclusions.........................................................................................................102 Chapter Nine: Conclusions...........................................................................................104 Future Research...................................................................................................107 Significance of Study...........................................................................................108 References......................................................................................................................110 Appendices ....................................................................................................................117 Appendix 1: Participant Information ..................................................................117 Appendix 2: Focus Group Questions ..................................................................118 Focus Group 1 A and B ..........................................................................118 Focus Group 2 .........................................................................................118 Appendix 3: Interview Questions .......................................................................119 Interviews with PAY Participants ...........................................................119 Interviews with Former PAY Participants ..............................................121 Interviews with PAY Staff ......................................................................123 vi Abstract This study explores the impact of sport on the lives of 15-19 year old female participants in the Physically Active Youth program in Namibia by examining how they reinforce or resist dominant gender discourses in their lives through their reflections and conversations on sport and by highlighting discourses of agency that emerge from their perceptions of the role sport may play in their economic and educational futures and their own personal growth and development through sport. In the struggle to resist multiple oppressions within intersecting frameworks of race, gender, class, and age, this exploration of girls‘ reflections on sports reveals the normalization of dominant discourses