Breathing Life Into the Stone Fort Treaty by Aimée Craft B.A., University of Manitoba, 2001 LL.B., Université d‘Ottawa, 2004 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF LAWS in the Faculty of Law Aimée Craft, 2011 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. ii Supervisory Committee Breathing Life Into the Stone Fort Treaty by Aimée Craft B.A. (L.-Ph.), University of Manitoba, 2001 LL.B, Université d‘Ottawa, 2004 Supervisory Committee Jeremy Webber, Faculty of Law Supervisor Michael Asch, Department of Anthropology Co-supervisor iii Abstract Supervisory Committee Jeremy Webber, Faculty of Law Supervisor Michael Asch, Department of Anthropology Co-supervisor This dissertation will demonstrate that, by considering Treaty One (1871) from the perspective of the Anishinabe, especially Anishinabe laws or Anishinabe inaakonigwein and normative expectations, one can obtain a better understanding of why there is a discrepancy in interpretations of the treaty. The research draws on practices of treaty making prior to Treaty One and shows that the parties relied extensively on Anishinabe protocols and procedural laws in the context of the Treaty One negotiations. In addition, kinship relationships, the obligations derived from them, and a sense of the sacred obligations involved in treaty-making, informed the agreement that was made between the parties. In particular, the kinship between a mother and child was invoked by the parties; the Crown negotiators relying on it primarily to secure good terms with the Anishinabe and the Anishinabe advocating for a commitment to ensuring a good life while respecting and preserving their autonomy. The exploration of the historical records of the negotiations and the oral history surrounding the treaty help draw out the differing and sometimes competing understandings of the treaty, many of which continue to this day, and in particular in relation to the effect of the treaty agreement on legal relationships to land. They help illuminate questions regarding the interpretation of the Treaty, including what would be necessary in order to implement it in accordance with its signatories‘ understandings. iv Table of Contents Supervisory Committee ...................................................................................................... ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi Acknowledgments............................................................................................................. vii Dedication ........................................................................................................................ viii Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION............................................................................................ 1 Overview ......................................................................................................................... 1 Treaty interpretation and implementation ....................................................................... 7 Methodology ................................................................................................................. 12 The record of Treaty One .......................................................................................... 15 Anishinabe Inaakonigewin (Law) ............................................................................. 20 Outline........................................................................................................................... 22 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 24 Chapter 2 : PRE-TREATY CONTEXT ............................................................................ 29 Indigenous treaties ........................................................................................................ 34 The fur trade treaties ..................................................................................................... 37 Anishinabe treaties with the Crown .............................................................................. 45 Treaty with the Indians of Manitoba ............................................................................. 52 The need to secure alliance ....................................................................................... 52 The Selkirk Treaty .................................................................................................... 57 Reigning Uncertainty ................................................................................................ 59 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 62 Chapter 3 : ANISHINABE INAAKONIGEWIN (LAW) AND TREATY ONE ............... 65 Understanding and defining - what is law? ................................................................... 65 Recognition of indigenous legal traditions ................................................................... 66 Multiple systems of law ................................................................................................ 69 Anishinabe inaakonigewin (law) and Treaty ................................................................ 71 Building on solid foundations: relationships and protocols .......................................... 74 Relationships between groups - Waiting for the others, Authority to speak ............ 75 Relationships to other Anishinabe - Removing the dark cloud ................................. 78 Relationships with guests - Gifting and Feasting ..................................................... 81 Relationship with the Creator and Spirit - The Pipe ................................................. 84 Kinship with the Queen ................................................................................................ 87 Obligations of love, kindness and understanding ..................................................... 91 Equality among the children ..................................................................................... 94 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 96 Chapter 4 : THE STONE FORT TREATY AND ANISHINABE LAND ....................... 99 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 99 The negotiations .......................................................................................................... 102 v Assurances of non-interference............................................................................... 102 ―The land cannot speak for itself‖ .......................................................................... 103 Reserves .................................................................................................................. 104 Threats..................................................................................................................... 106 Uncertainty .............................................................................................................. 107 Western views of land ............................................................................................. 110 Breakdown in negotiations ..................................................................................... 111 An unexplained shift ............................................................................................... 114 Outside Promises and Post-Treaty Disputes ............................................................... 115 Anishinabe relationships with land ............................................................................. 120 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 126 Chapter 5: CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 134 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 144 Treaties ........................................................................................................................ 144 Legislation................................................................................................................... 144 Case Law ..................................................................................................................... 144 Primary Sources: Government Documents ................................................................ 145 Primary Sources: Archival Documents ...................................................................... 145 Secondary Sources: Monographs, Essays in Collections and Articles ....................... 146 Secondary Sources: Newspapers ............................................................................... 151 Research Interviews and Personal Communications .................................................