COMBATING THE FRESHMAN 15: A FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS by Linn Enger Caroleo M.S., California State University, San Marcos, 1999 B.A., University of California, San Diego, 1997 A dissertation submitted to the Division of Curriculum and Instruction, Administrative Studies College of Professional Studies The University of West Florida In partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Education 2005 The dissertation of Linn Enger Caroleo is approved: ______________________________________ ________________ Eula M. Largue, Committee Member Date ______________________________________ ________________ Joyce C. Nichols, Committee Member Date ______________________________________ ________________ Stephen F. Philipp, Committee Member Date ______________________________________ ________________ Petra B. Schuler, Committee Member Date ______________________________________ ________________ Frank Andrasik, Committee Chair Date Accepted for the Department/Division: ______________________________________ ________________ Joseph M. Peters, Associate Dean Date Accepted for the College: ______________________________________ ________________ Janet K. Pilcher, Dean Date Accepted for the University: ______________________________________ ________________ Carl A. Backman, Associate Vice President Date Academic Affairs ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I passionately poured my time, creativity, eagerness, energy, and love into this project. I sincerely hope that my research will in some way help freshmen in the future. I wish to give tribute to special people in my life that made it possible for me to complete this dissertation and reach my goal. My husband, Wayne, who allowed me to spend hours of “us time” in the office, and who encouraged me through the peaks and valleys. Dr. Frank Andrasik, my mentor and guide through this process, who willingly donated his time and patience. My entire committee, who often under extreme time pressure completed the task and had wonderful suggestions. Uncle Per, who inspired me to obtain yet another degree and whom I admire. My mom, Babben, who often called and asked me with great enthusiasm how things where going and offered her undying support. My father, Larry, for asking the right question when I was stuck. My brother, Lars, for calling when I most needed it, and for his willingness to help. My sister, Ingri, for becoming my friend anew. My friend, Melissa, who was my panic button, cocreator and savior. My cousin, Ellen, and my grandmother, Laura, thank you for being my cheering section; Nancy — we miss you. To Lucy and Daisy for their doggy licks. My appreciation goes to Dr. Cavanaugh, who allowed me to use the UWF campus. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .....................................................................................iii LIST OF TABLES ..............................................................................................vii LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................ix ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................xii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION .................................................................... 1 A. The Freshman 15 .............................................................. 2 1. Food-Related Issues...................................................... 2 2. Lack of Exercise ............................................................ 3 B. Basis for the Study ............................................................ 5 1. Outcome Expectations................................................... 6 2. Self-Efficacy................................................................... 6 C. Theoretical Foundation ..................................................... 7 1. Stages and Processes of Change ................................. 8 2. Point-of-Decision Posters .............................................. 8 D. Feasibility and Research Questions.................................. 9 E. Definitions........................................................................ 10 F. Summary ......................................................................... 13 CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................ 15 A. The Freshman 15 ............................................................. 15 1. Food Issues ................................................................. 16 2. Obesity......................................................................... 17 3. Stress........................................................................... 18 4. Lack of Exercise .......................................................... 19 5. Health Locus of Control ............................................... 20 B. The Transtheoretical Model.............................................. 22 1. Motivational Readiness for Change ............................. 23 2. Processes of Change................................................... 26 3. Decisional Balance ...................................................... 30 iv C. Self-Efficacy, Attitudes, and Outcome Expectation…......... 31 1. Self-Efficacy................................................................. 31 2. Attitudes....................................................................... 33 3. Outcome Expectation................................................... 35 D. Proexercise Interventions................................................... 37 1. Mass Media Campaigns .............................................. 37 2. Behaviorism and Learning Theories ............................ 38 3. Behavioral Choice Theory............................................ 39 4. Ecological Model.......................................................... 40 5. Relapse Prevention Model........................................... 40 6. How It All Fits Together................................................ 41 E. Research on Intervention Methods Proposed For Use In This Study ....................................................... 42 1. Point-of-Decision Posters ............................................ 42 2. Tailored and Stage-Matched Interventions .................. 44 3. Computer-Based Intervention ...................................... 45 F. Summary .......................................................................... 46 CHAPTER III. METHOD................................................................................ 48 A. Sample ............................................................................. 48 B. Procedure......................................................................... 49 1. Web Site ...................................................................... 50 2. Point-of-Decision Posters............................................. 54 3. Print-Based Materials................................................... 55 C. Instruments....................................................................... 57 D. Research Design.............................................................. 59 E. Issues Addressed ............................................................. 60 F. Statistical Analysis ............................................................ 61 1. Point-Biserial Correlation Coefficient ........................... 63 2. Likert Scale Responses and t Testing.......................... 64 3. Frequencies ................................................................. 66 G. Confounding Variables..................................................... 67 H. Delimitations..................................................................... 69 CHAPTER IV. RESULTS ............................................................................... 71 A. Characteristics of the Sample............................................ 72 B. Point-Biserial Coefficient Of Correlation ............................ 75 C. Intervention Surveys ......................................................... 75 1. The Confidence Survey ................................................ 77 2. t Test for Correlated Means of Pre- and Postintervention Confidence Levels.............................. 78 3. Outcome Expectation Questionnaire ............................ 79 4. t Test for Correlated Means of Pre- and Postintervention Outcome Expectation Responses ...... 80 5. Processes of Change Survey ....................................... 80 v 6. t Test for Correlated Means of Pre- and Postintervention Processes of Change Levels.............. 81 D. Stages of Exercise Change............................................... 84 E. Favored Intervention Method............................................. 88 F. Auxiliary Data .................................................................... 92 CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION........................................................................... 95 A. Feasibility Questions .......................................................... 95 B. Theoretically Based Research Questions........................... 99 C. Further Reflection............................................................. 106 D. Limitations........................................................................ 107 E. Finale ............................................................................... 110 REFERENCES............................................................................................... 113 APPENDIXES................................................................................................. 135 A. Demographic Data and Chi-Square Testing