WE HAVE ALWAYS BEEN FASHIONABLE: EMBODYING COSMOPOLITANSIM AND NATIONALISM THROUGH FASHION IN ACCRA, GHANA By CHRISTOPHER RICHARDS A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2014 1 © 2014 Christopher Richards 2 To my Grandfather, who always believed I could accomplish anything. Now that the dissertation is finished, who knows what’s next…maybe the Oval Office? 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It would be impossible to acknowledge every individual that helped shaped this dissertation, so please know that if you contributed to this project in any way, I am appreciative for what you’ve done. First and foremost, I owe my deepest gratitude to the Ghanaian fashion designers who participated in my research: Aisha Obuobi, Ajepomaa Mensah, Aya Morrison, Brigitte Merki, Kabutey Dzietror, Sumaya Mohammad, Nelly Aboagye, Beatrice Arthur, Ben Nonterah, Kofi Ansah, Joyce Ababio, Mawuli Okudzeto, Titi Ademola, and Adoley Addo. They welcomed me into their studios, boutiques, and personal lives, ensuring that I was properly integrated in Accra’s vibrant fashion community. Their willingness to continually answer my questions and their candidness regarding Accra’s fashion culture allowed me to expand my research in unexpected directions, creating a more nuanced and comprehensive dissertation. Designers Ben Nonterah and Beatrice Arthur deserve special thanks for being my unofficial “protectors” in Accra. When I found myself in troubling situations (which only happened twice), Nonterah and Arthur came to my rescue. The personal assistants and shop managers of the aforementioned designers were equally instrumental in my research. I thank them for their patience and understanding, as well as for permitting me to observe the intricacies of managing a boutique. Gladys, the shop manager at Christie Brown and Vic, the shop manager at PISTIS deserve special recognition, as I “invaded” their space more than the rest. They even willingly let me dress and undress their mannequins so I could get that “perfect” picture! The faculty of the fashion program at Accra Polytechnic were equally approachable and influential in shaping my research. They were undaunted by the 4 appearance of an unknown Obruni who stated that he was studying fashion, actively encouraging me to participate in regular critiques of students’ designs. To my surprise and utter delight, after several weeks of collaboration, I found myself sitting beside the instructors during these critiques! The instructors treated me with the upmost respect and the resulting experiences with their students helped shape my understanding of the future of Accra’s fashion culture. The historical research I conducted would have been impossible without the helpful and understanding staff of The Daily Graphic archive. They always greeted me warmly and never balked at any of my requests. Not only did they bring me volumes and volumes of newspapers that transformed my understanding of Accra’s fashion culture, they became my companions and punctuated the monotony of archival research with interesting conversations, thought-provoking questions, and telenovelas. When I met Charlotte Corstanje during my 2012 research trip, I quickly realized that we would become great friends and research partners. With Corstanje’s help, I met an entire generation of emerging designers, as well as attended several fashion shows and boutique openings. With her charms, we were always assured a front row seat, even if we weren’t on the list! I feel incredibly lucky to have been given the opportunity to speak with Former First Lady Nana Konadu Agyeman Rawlings regarding her husband’s presidency, as well as her penchant for elaborate kaba designs. I appreciated her honesty and candidness, and her recollections greatly enhanced my dissertation. I certainly hope that I will be able to interview her again and potentially share her dazzling collection of kabas with an American audience! 5 Without any doubts, the most important Ghanaian to my research is Mrs. Emily Asiedu. Over my last three research trips to Ghana, Auntie Emily has become my unofficial Ghanaian mother, providing me with encouraging words when needed, advice that I (almost) always heeded, and a warm and welcoming home to return to after long hours of research and interviews. Her impact on my life and academic career is indescribable and I can’t thank her enough for opening her home, and her heart, to me. There are just as many people on the other side of the Atlantic that warrant acknowledgment for their contributions to this dissertation. The University of Florida librarians and staff, particularly Tom Caswell and Tisha Mauney, deserve special thanks for their unwavering assistance. Tom was always willing to order additional books for my dissertation research and Tisha would scan just about anything I needed, including a two hundred page dissertation! Most memorably, Tom and Tisha (as well as the rest of the library staff) were incredibly supportive during my competency exams, even loaning me a library cart to help transport books to my car. They were wonderful cheerleaders, always encouraging me to stay focused and write! My committee members have provided me unending assistance and intellectual stimulation that has been crucial to the completion of this dissertation. Dr. Stanfield- Mazzi has been reassuring throughout the entire writing process and has been a wonderful professor to work with; serving as her teaching assistant was an incredibly educational and enjoyable experience! Dr. Brenda Chalfin helped acquaint me with Accra during my first visit to Ghana and she has continually challenged me to think more expansively and theoretically. Dr. Robin Poynor has proven to me that professors can be incredibly intellectual and knowledgeable, without losing their ability to have fun 6 and laugh on occasion. Dr. Poynor is one of the best storytellers I know and I’m so thankful that he’s been willing to share his fieldwork experiences with me; I look forward to when I become a “senior” scholar and I can “spin yarns”! I’m most thankful for his continued efforts to ensure all of his students, including me, are integrated into the established network of African art historians. When I realized I was one of Dr. Poynor’s “Little Ducklings,” trailing behind him at conferences and cocktail parties, it was a fantastic feeling! Dr. Victoria Rovine, my committee chair, has had the most significant impact on my career as an emerging African art historian. I have watched my writing blossom under her tutelage and she has expanded my knowledge of African art in directions I never would have expected. She has been an incredible advisor throughout this writing process, always encouraging and ever-understanding of the difficulties that accompany producing a dissertation. I’ve grown to love her honest and constructive feedback, even though seeing hundreds of edits and comments on a chapter can initially be disheartening. I always knew that each and every comment would make me a better writer and researcher, and it has! I aspire to obtain her level of intelligence and eloquence; Dr. Rovine, you are truly my academic role-model, thank you for accepting me as your student in 2008. This has been an incredible journey and you have been a phenomenal guide! This dissertation would not have been finished without the emotional support of my friends and family. I am extremely lucky for friends like Amanda Strasik and Logan Marconi, who actively listen to my writing woes and provide needed distractions from the monotony and insanity of producing a dissertation. Jordan Fenton has also 7 provided valuable guidance regarding the dissertation submission process. The rest of my friends, Sheena Walia, Sean Graham, and Sara Klemann, have been equally supportive and encouraging. It’s wonderful to have friends who are genuinely concerned with your success! My extended family, particularly my Aunt Caroline and Uncle Don, as well as my Aunt Mary and Uncle Paul, have shown unending support throughout this process. They always had positive thoughts and lots of hugs to keep me going! My cousin Tamara played a particularly important role during the inception of this project; she agreed to accompany me on my first trip to Ghana, a trip full of anxieties and uncertainties, yet one of the best trips of my life. Tamara was there when I needed to process my experiences and she was the absolute best travel buddy I could have asked for; even the flooding of one of our hotels didn’t faze her! Lastly, and most importantly, I thank my parents. They have provided me with unending love and support throughout this entire process. Whether I was crying with frustration or paralyzed with “writer’s block,” they kept me grounded and focused, always knowing that I was capable of finishing my dissertation. They have always been my biggest supporters and I am eternally grateful for everything they’ve done. After they’ve “taken care” of me for all these years, I can’t wait to return the favor! 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ 12 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... 20 ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................