ResearchOnline@JCU This file is part of the following reference: Cottam, Stella (2011) The popularization of astronomy in the United States of America subsequent to the transits of Venus of 1874 and 1882 and the total solar eclipses of 1868, 1869 and 1878. PhD thesis, James Cook University. Access to this file is available from: http://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28364/ The author has certified to JCU that they have made a reasonable effort to gain permission and acknowledge the owner of any third party copyright material included in this document. If you believe that this is not the case, please contact [email protected] and quote http://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28364/ The Popularization of Astronomy in the United States of America Subsequent to the Transits of Venus of 1874 and 1882 and the Total Solar Eclipses of 1868, 1869 and 1878 Thesis Submitted by Stella E. Cottam, B.S. (Fordham University), B.S. (University of Nevada, Reno), Master of Library Science (University of Kentucky), Master of Astronomy (University of Western Sydney) December, 2011 for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Engineering and Physical Sciences James Cook University i ABSTRACT During its formative years of the early nineteenth century, the United States of America was struggling to define its system of government and establish an infrastructure that would assure economic and social success. Initially government priorities did not support the search for knowledge for its own sake. This would change over the years with the young country’s increased stability. Significant astronomical events of the second half of the century, e.g. certain solar eclipses and the two transits of Venus, provided the former colonies with opportunities to prove their ability to take a more proactive role in the pursuit of science. Significant technological advances during the century concurrently permitted a lifestyle of more leisure time among the general public. These same astronomical events generated considerable public interest and, with their increased leisure time, interested citizens were enabled to pursue this interest on various levels. Degrees of interest ranged from the casual satisfaction of curiosity to the desire to actively participate in astronomical endeavors. Numbers and anecdotal evidence have been provided demonstrating an increase throughout this range. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I have learned that the astronomical community is a most generous one. They have been willing to share their time, thoughts and resources. It has been my pleasure to communicate by phone, e-mail and in person with the following individuals and I want to express my most sincere gratitude: Robert Ariail, of the Antique Telescope Society and co-author of the wonderful herein cited book on the Clarks, was kind enough to speak with me on the telephone about the book, and gave me permission to use his Fitz photograph used in this paper. Dr. Walter Breyer, Executive Secretary of the Antique Telescope Society, was my first of several contacts with the Antique Telescope Society. I thank him for his recommendations of knowledgeable individuals that proved to be invaluable resources. Ben Burress, Program Content Developer, of the Chabot Space & Science Center provided some details on its growing significance, since the nineteenth century, in bringing astronomy to the public. Jacqueline Davis, museum curator of the Fort Sam Houston Museum, assisted me in finding the historical marker for the American transit expedition site in San Antonio and provided me with materials that brought the event to life. Dr. Suzanne Debarbat helped me locate some elusive information on the French expedition to the transit of Venus site in St. Augustine, Florida with the assistance of Virginie Barbet of the Paris Observatory Library. Dr. Steven Dick brought to my attention materials available at the National Archives regarding public participation in the science of astronomy. Almost at the end of my research I was reminded and am humbled by the amount of resources that might still be out there regarding this topic of my thesis. He was kind enough to send me the specifics enabling me to find these wonderful materials in a timely manner. Professor Hilmar Duerbeck provided me with some items on the German expedition to the transit of Venus site at Trinity College in Connecticut. He also recommended I contact Professor Chris Sterken with whom he wrote a paper on the Belgian sites. Dr. Yvette Everingham of James Cook University set me straight on some points of the statistical analysis incorporated into the discussion section of my thesis. Bart Fried, also of the Antique Telescope Society, in fact its founder, was kind enough to spend some time with me on the telephone to discuss the telescope maker John Brashear and suggested some references which I obtained and thoroughly enjoyed. Dr. John Pearson, fellow student, and recent PhD graduate, has provided useful general recommendations during this process and been a congenial partner on a joint paper and presentation relating to topics of mutual interest. iii Leslie Proudfit of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific provided me with resources regarding the growth and accomplishments of that society during the period covered in my thesis. Carolyn Sanford, Head of Reference and Instruction of the Gould Library at Carleton College, and Eric Hillemann, College Archivist, provided answers to my questions regarding the Sidereal Messenger. Professor Chris Sterken send me several items of interest and inspiration regarding the transit of Venus of 1882, in particular regarding Jean-Charles Houzeau and the Belgian expedition to the transit of Venus site in San Antonio as well as some accomplishments of David Todd during this event. John Ventre, historian for the Cincinnati Observatory Center, provided me with the available rosters of membership of the COC for the nineteenth century. He has always been available to verify facts and offer useful suggestions. Dr. Alice Walters was kind enough to provide me with a copy of her paper on broadsides and solar eclipses. Eileen Wild of the Chicago Astronomical Society communicated with me a number of times clarifying details about the Society, its membership and its accomplishments. It is difficult to express how much I appreciate the support I received from Dr. Thomas Williams. He provided me with an abundance of valuable suggestions, helpful in creating much of the framework and some specifics of my thesis. There have been many unnamed individuals who have helped me immensely with this project. I think now specifically of the staff at the Aiken County Historical Society, the University of Cincinnati Archives and the Cincinnati Historical Society, The National Archives in Washington, DC, and the Shelbyville Historical Society. I know there are others… My very special thanks to Associate Professor Wayne Orchiston and Professor Richard Stephenson, my James Cook University supervisors in this endeavor. They helped me develop my thesis, suggested resources and contacts and provided valuable guidance and insights throughout the process. When Wayne proposed this path to me several years ago I was intrigued, excited and a little apprehensive. I hope this work is up to his expectations. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Tables ................................................................................................................ vii Figures ............................................................................................................... vii 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Thesis Topic ........................................................................................ 1 1.2 Terminology ........................................................................................ 2 1.3 Justification of This Study ................................................................... 2 1.4 Relevance of the Topic ....................................................................... 3 1.5 Methodology ....................................................................................... 3 1.6 Outline of the Thesis ........................................................................... 4 2 Historical Overview .......................................................................................... 6 3 Scientific Overview ........................................................................................ 18 3.1 Solar Eclipses and the Nature of the Solar Corona ........................... 18 3.1.1 Eclipses, Prominences and the Corona ................................ 18 3.1.2 Earlier Solar Eclipses of Note ............................................... 19 3.1.3 Instrumentation .................................................................... 21 3.1.4 Solar Eclipses of 1868, 1869 and 1878 ................................ 23 3.1.5 Evolving Directions for Solar Research ................................ 40 3.1.6 Conclusions ......................................................................... 42 3.2 Transits of Venus and Refinement of the Value of the Astronomical Unit ............................................................................. 43 3.2.1 The Astronomical Unit – Significance and Early Determination ..................................................................... 43 3.2.2 Recap of Earlier Recorded Transits of Venus ....................... 45 3.2.3 Methodologies .....................................................................