Connectedness and Disconnectedness in Thembeyakhe Harry Gwala’s Biography, 1920-1995: Rethinking Political Militancy, Mass Mobilisation and Grassroots Struggles in South Africa Mxolisi Chrisostomas Dlamuka A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History, Faculty of Arts, University of the Western Cape March 2018 Supervisor: Professor Ciraj Rassool DECLARATION I, Mxolisi Chrisostomas Dlamuka, declare that “Connectedness and Disconnectedness in Thembeyakhe Harry Gwala’s Biography, 1920-1995: Rethinking Political Militancy, Mass Mobilisation and Grassroots Struggles in South Africa” is my own work, that it has not been submitted for any degree or examination in any other university, and that all the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by complete references. Mxolisi Dlamuka 2 March 2018 i http://etd.uwc.ac.za/ DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to all unknown and uncommemorated heroes and heroines who sacrificed their lives in prisons for South Africa to be a free country and a constitutional democracy. ii http://etd.uwc.ac.za/ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation has taken many years of research, intellectual growth and encounters with new modes of knowledge and historical sources I never knew existed. It would have been difficult if I did not have the support of many people who made invaluable contributions. I am deeply grateful to my supervisor, Professor Ciraj Rassool, for his patience, guidance and constructive critique throughout my doctoral studies. Ciraj was always willing to understand my approaches and constantly challenged me to explore new ways of re-interpreting Harry Gwala. Without his expert, yet accessible supervision, this dissertation would not have come to fruition. Professor Leslie Witz also deserves a special mention. Since 2009 I have enjoyed his collegiality and the ease of working with him, while he was longstanding chairperson of the Lwandle Migrant Labour Museum. It was through our engagements that he encouraged me to register for a doctoral programme at the University of the Western Cape. Thank you Leslie for your encouragement. Throughout the course of this dissertation the Gwala family welcomed me into their homes and accepted me as part of their family. They gave freely of their time and let me have access to family documents and albums. They also allowed me to have access to sensitive classified documents which have never been accessed by any researcher. These are Lindiwe Gwala, Linda Gwala, Duduzile Gwala, and Noluthando Gwala. Noluthando and I exchanged lengthy telephone calls and countless text messages as I tried to determine how the Gwala family was dealing with issues of memorisation and politics. It was through her that I was able to interview a number of individuals whose knowledge of Gwala helped to inform the content of iii http://etd.uwc.ac.za/ this dissertation. I am highly indebted to her for her trust in me and her passion for ensuring that the history of her grandfather was told. Thanks to Dr Frances Jowell, daughter of the late Mrs Helen Suzman, for giving me permission to access the Helen Suzman private papers held at the William Cullen Library’s Historical and Literary Papers at the University of the Witwatersrand and the Alan Paton Centre and Struggle Archives at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Professor Ari Sitas gave me incisive comments when he was a respondent to my presentation in August 2014 at the South African Contemporary History and Humanities Seminar, hosted jointly by the Centre for Humanities Research and History Department at the University of the Western Cape. We exchanged numerous emails on how to approach my argument. Drs Sibongiseni Mkhize, Tshepo Moloi, Bongani Ndhlovu and Peter Alegi read and commented on draft chapters of this dissertation. I benefited immensely from their constructive criticism. During the course of writing this dissertation I visited various repositories of knowledge and was warmly welcomed by staff members. At the Pietermaritzburg Archives Repository, Zama Gumede and Thando Maphumulo went out of their way to locate Gwala’s court records. The Library of Parliament was helpful and provided me with an enabling environment and access to many literary treasures. I am indebted to the following staff of the Library of Parliament Library for going out of their way to accommodate my never ending requests: Thea Louw, Amanda Mdudu, Funeka Makapela, Fezile Makanda, and many others who took time to make enquiries on my behalf and make countless photocopies. Natalie Skomolo and Zahira Adams of the sensitive documents section at the National Archives of South Africa helped me to go through the process of requesting access Gwala’s files in terms of the Promotion of Access to Information Act. Thank you for going out of your way to iv http://etd.uwc.ac.za/ ensure that these documents were delivered to me in Cape Town. Busi Khangala of the University of Cape Town’s special collections also assisted by downloading electronic documents swiftly and promptly. I accessed newspapers at the National Library of South Africa, Cape Town campus, and the assistance of library staff is much appreciated. Selebaleng Mashike of the South African State Security archives assisted me to go through the complicated process of accessing intelligence documents on Gwala. Finally, I convey my gratitude to the staff of the Wits Historical and Literary Papers, the Alan Paton Centre and Struggle Archives, the Robben Island-UWC Mayibuye Archives. Professor Thomas Karis, a member of the Order of O. R. Tambo, kindly gave me access to his interview with Harry Gwala which was part of the broader ongoing Karis and Carter projects. Sadly, Tom Karis passed away while this dissertation was being finalised. Large parts of this dissertation were written when I was employed at Parliament of the Republic of South Africa. I would like to thank Honourable J. L. Mahlangu, V. P. Mogotsi, G. A. Grootboom and X. S. Tom for encouraging me. Gadija Abdullatief, my former manager, understood my commitment to this dissertation and ensured that I had sufficient time to focus on it. Towards the end of writing this dissertation I was employed by the Western Cape’s Department of Cultural Affairs and Sport. Brent Walters and Guy Redman, allowed me time off to finalise the writing of the dissertation. Ameerah Peters, Aneeqah Brown, Vuyokazi Heli, Noluvo Toto, Nuraan Vallie, Michael Janse van Rensburg and Zwelibanzi Shiceka assisted me in various ways. Lastly, I am grateful to my family and all friends for their support and words of encouragement. Phakamile, Owami, Amkele and Olethweyinkosi put up with me spending a lot of time away from home. I thank my late grandparents, Vela and Phumzile Dlamuka, for v http://etd.uwc.ac.za/ their emphasis on education and excellence, despite the fact that they had very little education themselves. My mother, Nokuphiwa, supported me throughout my journey. I wish to thank the following family members, friends and colleagues for their support and encouragement: Mrs T. B. Blose, the late Michael Blose, Simon Gasa, Ntombizakhona Dlamini, the late Patrick Dlamini, Dumisani Zondi, Bonisiwe Zondi, Nobuhle Mathonsi, Sibusiso Mkhithi, Jabulani Sithole, Muzi Hadebe, Paul Tichmann, Fiona Clayton, Lindokuhle Ngomane, Sthembile Mkhatshwa, Fundiswa Cwele, Nomsa Khumalo, Ntobeko Gumede, Zwelibanzi Masilela, Dr Sibusiso Khuzwayo, Nduduzo Gasa, Musawenkosi Hlengwa, Zwelakhe Cebisa, Nondumiso Mzobe, Nomathemba Hlengwa, Mbongeni Cele, Sphumelele Ntombela, Sipho Zulu, Sinamile Ntombela, Mbulelo Mrubata, Siboniso Dlamuka, Sinenhlanhla Gasa, Sinothi Thabethe, Cebolenkosi Gasa, Sabelo Madiba, Siyanda Gxekwa and Themba Dlamuka. Stephen Heyns translated some declassified archival documents from Afrikaans to English and provided editorial assistance to this dissertation. However, any errors and omissions remain entirely my responsibility. vi http://etd.uwc.ac.za/ ABSTRACT This dissertation is premised on the notions of connectedness and disconnectedness as a contribution to the field of South African biography. I argue that Harry Gwala’s life was characterised by connectedness and disconnectedness and was shaped by his determination to remain connected while the state utilised its coercive power to disconnect him. While South African history has been largely written within the framework of repression and resistance, a study of Gwala’s life enables historians to examine twentieth century history from a different perspective which focuses on themes of connectedness and disconnectedness. Gwala’s rural background, his training as a teacher and his later involvement in trade unionism enabled him to develop and maintain connectedness with grassroots sentiments. In an attempt to disconnect Gwala from these pursuits, he was occasionally tortured and served with banning orders which restricted his movement and political activities. He was imprisoned on Robben Island between 1964 to 1972 and 1977 to 1987. While disconnected by banning orders and constant harassment by state security agents, Gwala continued to retain his connectedness through underground activities and later through his involvement in re-establishing branches of the African National Congress after his release from prison in 1988. This dissertation argues that Gwala was a product of a complex society and varied social milieux which were all characterised by high levels of class deprivation and exploitation. As he meandered through