Using Monkey to Teach Religions of China By Ryan Bradeen and Jean Johnson ike most classics of literature, Journey to t/1e West (also lrnown as J.1onkey, after its main char­ acter, tbe wand.mus Monl~ey King) can be read on many levels. Besicles being a tale of epic adventure on the scale of Star W.:1rs or the Lord o/ tin Rings, Jvfonkey bas been read as political ancl religious satire, as allegory, and as fantastical historical fiction. In tl1is essay we will undertake a jour­ ney to discover wl1at Monl~ey can reveal about Cbinese religio n. First, we will show bow, in tl1e early chapters of tl1e novel, Monkey depicts Daoist, Confucian, and Buddhist deities living side- by-side in an amalgamated but coherent cosm ology, ratlwr than existing as distinct and contradicting visions of the spiritual world. We will ask how tbis unified cosmology matches with tl1e reality of tl1e Cbinese religious experience. Secondly, we wil l investigate h ow the later cl1apters of the novel can be read both as a quest story following the four main characters, Monkey, the m o nk Xuanzang, Pigsy, and Sandy, on their pilgrimage to India, as well as an allegorical quest for in n er enlightenment. 39 Tll.E ORIGINS OF THE STORY Not surprisingly the character Monkey has a central role in the l11e Journey to the West that comes down to us today was written in novel. The first seven chapters introduce Monkey and describe how the late Ming Dynasty (circa 1580 CE) by the scholar Wu Cheng'en. he gained his amazing powers. While the general plot of Journey to 1n many respects. Wu Cheng'en's role was more that of compiJer of the Wesr is ostensibly quite Buddhist in orientation, following Lhe an extensive story cycle dating back as far as Lhe mid-Tang Dynasty pilgrimage of the monk Xuanzang to India to gather Buddhist scrip­ (618-907 CE), rather than as original author. Nonetheless, since its tures, the story begins with the birth oJ a stone monkey from a stone publication. Wu Cheng'en's version has assumed the position of egg percbed high on a mountaintop where, "Ever since Creation definitive text. and all versions published after 1592 CE derive from began it had been receiving the truth of Heaven .. Lhe beaury of Earth. the Wu Cheng'en text. 1 the essence of Sun and the splendor of the Moon."4 This naturalistic The earliest threads of the Joumey to the We.1·t story cycle are opening is a very Daoist start to the tale. based on a historical journey. ln 640 CE. a Chinese Buddhist monk This magical stone monkey soon becomes king of a tribe of named Xuanzang (Shwan-zang) traveled across the deserts and monkeys. The monkeys lived carefree and happily in the mountains mountains of Inner Asia 10 reach lndia.2 He went in search until one day the stone Monkey King became sad: "The time will of Buddhist scriptures. spent many years in Tndia studying. and come when we are old and weak. ...When the time comes for us 10 finally returned to China seventeen years after his departure. This die we won.'t be able to go on Uving among the Blessed, and our famous pilgrimage became the subject for myriad fanciful lives will have been in vain." All of the monkeys covered their faces retellings. The rough outlines of Journey to the West, compl.ete with and wept. thinking about death."5 This Buddhist meditation on the Monkey, Pigsy, and Sandy, the three disciples who accompany nature of life and death sparks the Monkey King to act. Xuanzang (now called Tripitaka) on his fictionalized journey, The Monkey King leaves his tribe and travels the world search­ existed as folk tales. short stories, and plays as early as the tenth ing for a way to escape death. Initially, Monkey sets out in search of century CE.3 immortality, a Daoist goaJ, rather Lha11 enlig)1te11ment, the Buddhist Ln addition to being one of China's most loved clas.sic novels. goal. Soon Monkey finds a Daoist master who teaches him the secrets Monkey remains a vibrant part of Chinese popular culture today. At of immortality, cloud-leaping. the seventy-two 1ransfonnations, and bookstores in China, Joumey to the West is available by the bushel many other magic power.;. in every imaginable format, from children's stories lo comics to Tbe Jade Emperor, ruler of the Heavenly Empire, hearing of el.aborate multi-volume rare editions illustrated with woodblock Monkey's mighty powers, offers him a place in the ranks of the prints. Tripitaka and his companions decorate walls in temples and Celestial Bureaucracy. The Jade Emperor tricks Monkey into accept­ palaces; they are perennial favorites at Peking Opera; and a recent ing a lowly position as Keeper of the Stables. Nonetheless. Monkey television version of the story was watched by millions of Chinese. is initially thoroughly satisfied to be part of the celestial apparatus Most importantly, Monkey is in people's conversations. Old men, for governing the universe. young boys, women of all ages-most Chinese have a favorite This term "Celestial Bureaucracy" may sound oxyrnoronic. but character. many a favorite episode. To !he modem Chinese reader, the fact is. when we examine the Chinese vision of Heaven, the Journey to the Wesr is a fundamental piece of cultural mythology in image we are presented wilh is exactly that of u bureaucracy. Not tbe popular imagination that transcends the historical context of its j ust any bureaucracy: the Chinese have. since at least I 000 CE, story and authorship as well as its religious content. Monkey has depicted Heaven as an elaborate replica of the imperial bureaucracy maintained its place in the popular imagination even through the that governed on earth. The Jade Emperor who rules in Heaven is Communist era when religious practice and classical literature were commonly depicted wearing Lhe same clolhes as a Cilinese emperor. both disparaged Additionally, the novel's themes of self-cultivation He is served by officials who keep accounts, issue decrees, and file and its satire of a com1pt bureaucracy have continued to resonate papers, just as their counterparts on earth do. Their jobs include with contemporary Chinese audiences. everything from soldiers to stable boys to advisors to the Jade Emperor himself. Officials in Heaven can be promoted or demoted, PAAT l and, like their earthly counterparts. it is often necessary to bribe them MONKEY AND THE CHINESE to get their help. RELIGIOUS PATTERN fn outward appearance, the Chinese pantheon would appear to One of the most intriguing aspects of Munkey is its presentation of be arranged in a highly stratified Confucian order, wi th ranks and Chinese religious life. From Heaven to Hell, from the inner chambers proper etiquette structuring the Heavenly Bureaucracy. In reality that of temples to the caves of mountain recluses, from lecherous false is only partially the case. Like Monkey. many of the gods occupying priests to devout laymen. Journey to the West depicts the full spec­ posts in the Heavenly Bureaucracy are believed to have been people trum of the Chinese religious experience during the late imperial peri­ (or, in Monkey·s case, an ape) who have achieved immonality. od. In this section we will examine the place of China"s three main Many of these immortals are believed to have once been historical religious traditions (Confucianfam. Daoism. and Buddhism) in the persons. The whole process by which humans ascend to godhood cosmology depicted in Journey to the West. What we suggest is that puts us squarely in the realm of Daoism, where one of the primary in the vision of the Chinese Heaven portrayed in Monkey, the three goals is achieving immortality. Additionally, many of the deities traditions are deeply intertwined in the same cosmology. There are no· who occupy the highest posts in the Chinese Heaven are anthropo­ clear distinctions between them, and the three philosophies work well morphized versions of early Daoist deities such as the God of the together. This depiction accurately represents the lived religious Pole Star. For example, the God of the City Walls acts as the spiritu­ experience of everyday Chjnese, and provides a healthy antidote to al district magistrate for a particular geographic region, overseeing tbe common perception of Chinese religious traditions as distinct, lower gods within his j urisdiction. The God of the City Walls was sometime competing, often contradictory teachings. originally an abstract eartl1 god (read Daoist) with power over wild 40 EDUCATION Aamrr ASIA Volume lO, Number2 Fall 2005 Daoist deities often pop up in Buddhist A Schematic Metaphor for the Chinese Religious Pattern temples. or in Confucian shrines (and Daoism Confucianism Buddhism vice versa); why Confucian officials Institutional, NARROW text-based reli- PARTICIPA TJON go to their gardens to write Daoist• gious practices inspired poetry; and why funerals, performed by established reli- even of Confucian scholars or Daoist gious hierachy and rules. priests, are often offi ciated by Bud­ dhist monks. In place of three isolated traditions operating independently within a single culture, we see a broad, decentralized, and internally coherent Chinese religious pattern. the sum CHINESE POPULAR RELI GION of which is greater than Daoism. Con­ Oral, unorga­ Examples of beliefs and practices originating in popular stratum: fucianis m. and Buddhism taken nized beheb , Yin & Yang -Health, Fortune, Fertility wlthout . Five Elements&. Eight Trigrams ,Spring Festival, Dragon Boat FestiVal, individually . established • Ancestor Reverance Mid-Autumn Festival. & oiher holidays hierarchy or BROAD • Feng Shui & Divination (I-Ching) The best description of this broad­ texts.