YELLOWCAKE ROAD: THE LEGAL REGIME FOR THE ROAD TRANSPORT OF URANIUM OXIDE IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA EMILY BELL BACHELOR OF LAWS / BACHELOR OF CRIMINOLOGY MURDOCH UNIVERSITY This thesis is presented for the Honours degree of Bachelor of Laws of Murdoch University, 2017. WORD COUNT: 19,620 (Excluding footnotes, bibliography and appendices) DECLARATION I, Emily Bell, declare this thesis is my own account of my research and contains as its main content, work which has not been previously submitted for a degree at any tertiary education institution. ii COPYRIGHT ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I acknowledge that a copy of this thesis will be held at the Murdoch University Library. I understand that, under the provisions of s51.2 of the Copyright Act 1968, all or part of this thesis may be copied without infringement of copyright where such a reproduction is for the purposes of study and research. This statement does not signal any transfer of copyright away from the author. Signed: ………………………………. Degree: Bachelor of Laws / Bachelor of Criminology Thesis Title: Yellowcake Road: The Legal Regime for the Road Transport of Uranium Oxide in Western Australia Author: Emily Bell Year: 2017 iii ABSTRACT Uranium is a contentious and emotive commodity. Attitudes towards uranium and the nuclear fuel cycle have, overall, been negative. Distrust of the nuclear industry and misunderstandings about the level of risk posed by the transport of uranium oxide (also known as yellowcake) has influenced a policy ban prohibiting uranium exports from Western Australian ports. Western Australia has a nascent uranium industry, with four major projects at various stages of government approval. When these mines commence production, producers will be forced to truck the uranium oxide by road to either Port Adelaide or Port Darwin for export. This thesis analyses the issues facing Western Australian producers as a consequence of the export ban. The current regulatory regime exposes Western Australian producers to three governments, five regulatory agencies, and at least seven different approvals and permits. The radiation protection schemes in each jurisdiction varies, so a consignment of uranium oxide is subject to different requirements between the Northern Territory, South Australia and Western Australia. Further, different versions of the Code for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material operate around Australia, compounding legislative discrepancies. This thesis considers that the current regime is overly complex, overlapping and out- of-date with international best practice, and considers broad reforms to harmonise the legislation governing the transport of uranium oxide. It argues that multiple regulators and different legislative requirements impose significant financial burdens and compliance costs on Western Australian producers. These differences also threaten the integrity of the overall goal of radiation protection to protect the health and safety of people from the harmful effects of ionising radiation. Further, Australia’s inability to remain up-to-date with international developments affects contractual relationships with overseas uranium consumers and may induce shipment denials. iv GENERAL ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank my supervisor, Professor Kate Lewins, for her guidance, insightful comments, and support throughout the course of this thesis. I also wish to thank my family and friends for their unwavering support and understanding. I especially wish to thank Matilda for volunteering to proof-read, and to Jon and Basil for their emotional support. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration ...................................................................................................................ii Copyright Acknowledgement ...................................................................................... iii Abstract ....................................................................................................................... iv General Acknowledgements ......................................................................................... v Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... vi Abbreviations and Defined Terms ............................................................................... ix Tables and Figures ..................................................................................................... xii I Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 A A Complicated Regime.............................................................................................. 4 B The Problem ............................................................................................................... 6 C The Solution? ............................................................................................................. 7 D Structure of this Thesis ............................................................................................. 7 II The Port Problem ............................................................................................... 9 A Introduction ............................................................................................................... 9 B The Policy Ban ........................................................................................................... 9 C Hazards of Uranium Oxide..................................................................................... 10 1 Transport Risks ..................................................................................................... 10 2 Radiological Risks ................................................................................................ 13 3 Chemical Risks...................................................................................................... 15 4 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................. 15 D Factors Influencing the Policy Ban ........................................................................ 16 1 Political Factors ..................................................................................................... 16 2 Social Factors ........................................................................................................ 18 3 Economic Considerations...................................................................................... 22 E The Way Forward? ................................................................................................. 23 F Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................... 25 III An Overview of the Legislative Scheme ......................................................... 27 A Introduction ............................................................................................................. 27 B Division of Regulatory Power ................................................................................. 27 C Applicable Laws for the Transport of Uranium Oxide ....................................... 29 1 Radiation Protection .............................................................................................. 29 2 Environmental Protection...................................................................................... 30 3 A Note on Dangerous Goods ................................................................................ 31 vi 4 Non-Proliferation .................................................................................................. 32 5 Exports .................................................................................................................. 33 D Practical Effects of the Legislative Scheme ........................................................... 33 E Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................... 35 IV A Comparison of the Radiation Protection Legislation of the Northern Territory, South Australia and Western Australia ....................................... 37 A Introduction ............................................................................................................. 37 B Australian Attempts to Achieve Uniformity in Radiation Protection Laws ...... 37 1 ARPANSA ............................................................................................................ 38 2 National Directory for Radiation Protection ......................................................... 39 C Comparing Radiation Protection Legislation ....................................................... 40 1 Definitions ............................................................................................................. 40 2 Licensing ............................................................................................................... 43 3 Dose Limits ........................................................................................................... 46 4 Reporting Obligations ........................................................................................... 48 5 Other Obligations on Carriers and Consignors ..................................................... 50 6 Criminal Offences and Penalties ........................................................................... 51 D Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................... 53 V The International