National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior Intermountain Support Office Denver, Colorado THE CLASH OF CULTURES TRAILS PROJECT Assessing the National Significance of Trails associated with U.S. Army/ American Indian Campaigns in the Trans-Mississippi West A Cooperative Effort by the Western History Association and the National Park Service Navajo woman and baby, c. 1863-68, Fort Sumner, New Mexico, photo courtesy Museum of New Mexico, negative no. 3242. THE CLASH OF CULTURES TRAILS PROJECT Assessing the National Significance of Trails associated with U.S. Army/American Indian Campaigns in the Trans-Mississippi West A Cooperative Effort by the Western History Association and the National Park Service 2002: Denver, National Park Service, Intermountain Support Office, Cultural Resources and National Register Program Services Table of Contents Introduction 1 Background 2 Designation Criteria and Methodology of the National Trails System Act and the National Historic Landmarks Program 3 Project Schedule 4 Chapter 1: Project Participants 5 Western History Association Participants 5 National Park Service and Bureau of Land Management Project Team Members 7 Chapter 2: Methodology 8 Evaluating National Significance of a Potential National Historic Trail 8 National Historic Landmark Criteria for National Significance 9 Evaluating Significance as a result of Historic Use as a Military Campaign Trail 12 Evaluating Potential for Public Recreational Use or Historical Interest 13 Chapter 3: WHA Mentors’ Scope of Work 15 Chapter 4: Significant Themes associated with the History of U.S. Army/American Indian Conflict in the Trans-Mississippi West 17 Chapter 5: An Overview of U.S. Army/ American Indian Campaigns in the Trans- Mississippi West, 1848-1886 24 Chapter 6: WHA Mentors’ Recommendations for the Most Significant Military Campaigns 35 Chapter 7: WHA Mentors’ Recommendations for the Most Significant Military Trails 37 Chapter 8: The Bozeman Trail 39 Associated Military Campaigns 39 Period of Significance 39 Location 39 Length of Trail 39 History 39 Map 40 Does the Bozeman Trail meet the definition of a military campaign trail? 41 Does the Bozeman Trail meet criteria for national significance? 42 Does the Bozeman Trail meet the criterion of significance through historic usage, as defined by the National Trails System Act? 42 Does the Bozeman Trail merit further study as a potential candidate for designation as a National Historic Trail? 42 i Places Associated with the Bozeman Trail that are Significant as Trail Resources and/or Provide Recreational and Interpretive Opportunities 43 Potential National Historic Landmarks associated with the Bozeman Trail 46 Chapter 9: The Long Walk 47 Associated Military Campaign 47 Period of Significance 47 Location 47 Length of Trail 47 History 47 Map 48 Does the Long Walk meet the definition of a military campaign trail? 50 Does the Long Walk meet criteria for national significance? 50 Does the Long Walk meet the criterion of significance through historic usage, as defined by the National Trails System Act? 51 Does the Long Walk merit further study as a potential candidate for designation as a National Historic Trail? 51 Places Associated with the Long Walk that are Significant as Trail Resources and/or Provide Recreational and Interpretive Opportunities 51 Potential National Historic Landmarks associated with the Long Walk 54 Chapter 10: The Northern Cheyenne Exodus Trail 56 Associated Military Campaign 56 Period of Significance 56 Location 56 Length of Trail 56 History 56 Map 57 Does the Northern Cheyenne Exodus Trail meet the definition of a military campaign trail? 59 Does the Northern Cheyenne Exodus Trail meet criteria for national significance? 59 Does the Northern Cheyenne Exodus Trail meet the criterion of significance through historic usage, as defined by the National Trails System Act? 60 Does the Northern Cheyenne Exodus Trail merit further study as a potential candidate for designation as a National Historic Trail? 60 Places Associated with the Northern Cheyenne Exodus Trail that are Significant as Trail Resources and/or Provide Recreational and Interpretive Opportunities 60 Potential National Historic Landmarks associated with the Northern Cheyenne Exodus Trail 64 Chapter 11: The Smoky Hill Trail 65 Associated Military Campaign 65 Period of Significance 65 Location 65 Length of Trail 65 History 65 Map 66 Does the Smoky Hill Trail meet the definition of a military campaign trail? 69 Does the Smoky Hill Trail meet criteria for national significance? 69 Does the Smoky Hill Trail meet the criterion of significance through historic usage, as defined by the National Trails System Act? 69 Does the Smoky Hill Trail merit further study as a potential candidate for designation as a National Historic Trail? 69 Places Associated with the Smoky Hill Trail that are Significant as Trail Resources and/or Provide Recreational and Interpretive Opportunities 69 Potential National Historic Landmarks associated with the Smoky Hill Trail 72 ii Chapter 12: Trails of the Great Sioux War 73 Associated Military Campaigns 73 Period of Significance 73 Location and Length of Trails 73 History 73 Map 74 Do the Trails of the Great Sioux War meet the definition of a military campaign trail? 77 Do the Trails of the Great Sioux War meet the criterion of significance through historic usage, as defined by the National Trails System Act? 77 Do the Trails of the Great Sioux War meet criteria for national significance? 77 Do the Trails of the Great Sioux War merit further study as a potential candidate for designation as a National Historic Trail? 77 Trails and Sites Associated with the Great Sioux War that are Significant as Trail Resources and/or Provide Recreational and Interpretive Opportunities. 78 Potential National Historic Landmarks associated with the Great Sioux War 82 Conclusion 83 Bibliography 88 iii Introduction In recent years, the National Park Service has increasingly turned to the academic community for assistance in the preparation of its history studies. The Clash of Cultures trails project, a cooperative effort by the National Park Service (NPS) and the Western History Association (WHA), exemplifies this partnership of academic and public history. For the Clash of Cultures trails project, the National Park Service asked WHA historians for their assistance in • A list, in priority order, of the most important identifying nationally significant trails associated military campaigns associated with this with the history of U.S. Army/American Indian history; campaigns in the trans-Mississippi West during the nineteenth century. Secondly, the NPS asked • A prioritized list of the most important the WHA historians for their recommendations military campaign trails associated with this as to whether any of these trails might warrant history; further study as potential National Historic Trails. As such, through the Clash of Cultures • Recommendations as to whether any of these trails project, the WHA could provide scholarly trails are of outstanding national significance; guidance to NPS researchers and planners as and they chart the course for future studies of trails associated with the history of the Indian Wars in • Recommendations as to whether any of these the West. Founded in 1961 and currently located trails may warrant further study as potential on the campus of the University of New Mexico, National Historic Trails. the Western History Association is a diverse group of western writers, academic historians, Upon receiving the mentors’ reports, the NPS public historians, and enthusiasts whose purpose project team members also evaluated the is to “promote the study of the North American recommended nationally significant trails West in its varied aspects and broadest sense.” according to the designation criteria of both the National Historic Landmarks program and the To accomplish these tasks, the Western History National Trails System Act. The mentors’ Association assembled a group of eminent recommendations, as well as the NPS western historians and, in coordination with the evaluations, are the main subjects of this report. National Park Service, asked each of them to The report also includes information on places prepare a report that addressed his or her along the trails that are of particular significance perspective on the national significance of the and/or offer recreational and/or interpretive trails associated with the Indians Wars in the opportunities. In addition, the report has West. Specifically, the WHA historians were information on places along the trails that may be asked to provide the following: potential National Historic Landmarks, pending further assessments of integrity. All of these • A description of the major broad themes, recommendations will be used by the National events, and persons associated with the Park Service to assess the need for future history history of U.S. Army/American Indian and/or planning studies. conflict in the trans-Mississippi West during the nineteenth century; It is important to note what this project did NOT do. It is not the purpose of the Clash of Cultures trails project to evaluate military campaign 1 Background The Clash of Cultures trails project is a “model” project in that it is the first time The Clash of Cultures trails project is a “model” project in that it is the first time that trails are that trails are being evaluated in terms of being evaluated in terms of their national their national significance using the significance using