Fever Dreams: Infectious Disease, Epidemic Events, and the Making of Hong Kong by Meaghan Jeannine Marian A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Toronto © Copyright by Meaghan Jeannine Marian 2016 Fever Dreams: Infectious Disease, Epidemic Events, and the Making of Hong Kong Meaghan Marian Doctor of Philosophy History University of Toronto 2016 Abstract There is no surfeit of infectious disease or of epidemic events in Hong Kong’s history. Accounts of local outbreaks of malaria, tuberculosis, influenza, cholera, and typhus pepper colonial government archives and newspaper reports. Deadly outbreaks of malaria dubbed the ‘Hongkong fever’ nearly put an end to this colonial project within its first few years of existence and to survive, its administrators borrowed strategies from Britain’s other tropical colonies, implementing afforestation projects and legislating spatial segregation from the local Chinese population. As entrepôt trade grew and Britain’s anchor to the China trade was integrated into imperial networks, local epidemics in ‘insalubrious’ Hong Kong spread through those same networks and so became pandemics. Such was the case when bubonic plague broke out at the end of the nineteenth century, carried through Hong Kong’s port system. In the twentieth century, Hong Kong faced chronic trouble with infectious disease, notably chronically high rates of tuberculosis, and was associated with three global pandemics: H2N2 or the ‘Asian flu’ in 1957, H3N2 or the ‘Hong Kong flu’ in 1968, and then a novel virus, SARS, in 2003. There are many reasons for Hong Kong’s implication in these pandemics, a constellation of the territory’s geographical, climatological, political and social traits. This confluence of factors is particular to Hong Kong and its risks intensified after the 1997 reunification with the People’s Republic of ii China. This dissertation narrates Hong Kong’s history through five epidemic events, revealing the medical stakes of the city’s hyperconnectivity as a global hub. At the same time, the project shows that this challenging disease history has molded local society, culture, and identity. Where epidemic events make Hong Kong’s global connections all too evident, collective memory of losses and surviving epidemics is integral to Hong Kong life and history. Its lives of its people, heunggangyahn, are shaped by the chronic presence of infectious disease and their survival of crises—medical, economic, and political—helps shape this distinct, local identity. iii Acknowledgments This dissertation is all about interdependence, entanglements, the connectedness of all beings and institutions. In the course of its composition, I studied many modes of thought, disciplinary conventions, academic protocols and several languages. But by far the most impressive lesson has been to understand how dependent I am on those in my networks, to know how greatly I rely on others in accomplishing my work, in chasing my dreams, and in cultivating a happy life. The great learning of my doctoral training is gratitude. I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof. Tong Lam. First, for his interest in my ideas and his certainty in my potential, start to finish. He allowed my curiosity and passions to lead the project and affirmed my strengths, always confident that a square peg deserved a place among round holes. Looking back, I remember that I left every one of our meetings feeling better than when I arrived: more buoyant, more motivated, more confident. I counted on him as an advocate an on his kindness through challenging times. I put him through every kind of trouble but still, we made it. I am so proud to be his student. The other members of my committee, Prof. Eric Jennings and Prof. Meng Yue, are formidable scholars who inspired me to reach to meet the highest standards of professionalism, rigour, and creativity. I offer my sincere thanks for their support and help as I planned my project and preparing for research. I am particularly greateful for their patience, for sticking by me to the end of this journey. Their thoughtful assessments of my work and advice on how I might grow as a scholar set a challenging path for me ahead. My external appraiser, Prof. Marta Hanson, was incredibly generous at every occasion that our paths crossed. Her thoughtful questions at the defence and her detailed notes on my writing are tangible evidence of her role in developing my scholarship. Her corrections of dozens, maybe hundreds, of non-serial commas was a lesson on its own, but her influence on my work is much greater. Without Prof. Hanson’s intervention, I would not have pursued my passion for Hong Kong and its history. I think of her as the fairy godmother of my work and as both the warmest and the coolest scholar in our field. Thank you! I owe tremendous thanks to Profs. Jesook Song and Nhung Tran. They share a few qualities, both unyieldingly principled feminist scholars and dedicated educators. They also share the traits of iv having been incredibly generous to me with their time, of having offered me professional opportunities, and of having become friends to me. Jesook, thank you for holding me accountable to myself and for being my role model. Thank you for the seeds you planted in the years I studied with you. They continue to bloom, surprising me when I see your enduring influence in my thought and intellectual instincts. Nhung, thank you for opening so many doors” to a region (or is it?), a teaching field, to professional networks, to a vision of equity in the academe that I am committed to building. I have loved this parallel journey through Southeast Asia. Thank you for your mentorship and your friendship. My father, stepmother, grandmother Mary and brother live far away but I felt their presence in every day’s work. My hopes are to have lived up to their dreams for me and to one day repay their patience and generosity. When I returned to finish my undergrad after a few years hiatus, I complained on the phone to my no-longer little brother that I was spending long nights in the library because I did not have a computer of my own. He shipped me his own laptop. That machine is long gone but I remember that gesture every time someone asks something of me that seems exceptional. Without those I left in Edmonton when I can here to study half a lifetime ago, the practical challenges of a doctoral degree would have stopped me before I began. My love and gratitude to you. I held good company along the way. Graduate school can be lonely and insular. The encouragement of my friends makes all the difference. Thank you for your support, for commiserating and for celebrating. I was also supported by all kinds of healers: biomedical, complementary, of mind, body, and soul. In particular, I recognize Dr. Meyer Balter, Dr. Chris Cavacuiti, Karen Essex (special thanks, Karen), Mike Fuhr, Dr. John Millar and Patricia Millar who is, in her own way, a healer. The last months of this process were exceptionally tough. Thank you to the friends who kept me on my feet. Thank you to the family at CUPE 3902 for advocating for safe, humane working conditions over the years and for the warmth and purpose the exec and staff shared with me through these last months. I offer my labour in solidarity. I offer special thanks to a few people who are far away but played crucial roles in my journey. Who imagined that my landlords in London would become my chosen family? Thank you to v Anna Maltz, Adam Rompel, and the Landrock Crew. Thanks also to Timothy Partridge and Aniko. I look forward to our next long walk through London. Thank you to Richard Alagoa and Alboury Diop for Hong Kong memories. And to Richard T. Moore, loyal friend for a decade now. Impossibly far away is my mother, Jeannine. I still miss you every single day. This dissertation and all of the labour and lessons along the way are dedicated to Prof. Victor Falkenheim and to my grandma Margaret. These two gave me unconditional support and unconditional—possibly unmerited—belief in my abilities. Without you, never. vi Table of Contents Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1 Foundations .................................................................................................................... 1 1 Prologue ..................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Thinking about Hong Kong ................................................................................................ 3 1.2 Infectious Disease, Epidemics and History ...................................................................... 12 1.2.1 Pathogens and People ........................................................................................... 12 1.2.2 Epidemic Events ................................................................................................... 14 1.3 A History of Hong Kong in Five Epidemics .................................................................... 16 1.3.1 The ‘Hongkong Fever’ .......................................................................................... 17 1.3.2 A Crisis of Intimacy .............................................................................................