J. Neumann Great Historical Events That were Department of Atmospheric Sciences The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Significantly Affected by the weather: Jerusalem, Israel 4, The Great Famines in Finland and S. Lindgren Institute of History Estonia, 1695-97 University of Helsinki Helsinki, Finland Abstract drought may be described, in view of the 'character' of In the years 1694 to early 1697, cold winters and cool and wet the weather conditions causing the drought, as a warm- springs and autumns led to extreme famine in northern Europe, dry famine. In the present paper we study a case where particularly in Finland, Estonia, and Livonia. It is estimated a famine was caused by weather conditions of an op- that in Finland about 25-33% of the population perished posite character, viz. the cold-wet famine of the years (Jutikkala, 1955; Muroma, 1972), and in Estonia-Livonia 1695-97 in Finland and Estonia, including what was about 20% (Liiv, 1938). As far as is known the population disasters associated with the famines of the 1690s in France, then called Livonia.2 And while in France's case, the Italy, and Scotland; 1816-17 in western Europe; 1845-46 in hunger conditions had but an effect, albeit an important Ireland; and 1867-68, again in Finland; were all notably one, on the events culminating in the great Revolution, smaller than those of Finland, Estonia, and Livonia in 1695-97. the cold-wet famine of 1695-97 in Finland and Estonia A reconstruction is attempted of the coarse features of weather conditions in northern Europe in the years preceding the made the event studied in this paper; namely the decima- famine. This is based on previous work by other investigators tion of the population of these two countries either (especially Jutikkala), and on contemporary documents and through prolonged starvation or through epidemics and literature examined by the present authors. other diseases promoted by undernourishment, un- Records indicate that in the absence of an appropriate diet, wholesome and/or indigestible food, contamination of the population consumed unwholesome and partly or fully indigestible 'foods' which led to widespread diseases and water resources, etc. epidemics (diarrhea of sorts, including lientery, dysentery, Finland apparently was the country most severely hit etc.). There were even some cases of cannibalism, The greatest by the cold-wet famine, losing between 25 and, per- rise in mortality took place in spring and early summer of haps, 33% of its population (Jutikkala, 1955, pp. 48 1697, when weather conditions were already in the process of improving. Somewhat paradoxically, city residents suffered and 52-53). A more recent study (Muroma, 1972) puts less than the utterly poor landless peasants and small peasants. the loss between 25 and 30%. At about the same time, Many of the farms were abandoned during the crisis, either Estonia lost about 20% of its population (Liiv, 1938, through the death of either all or some members of the family p. 124). concerned, or through migration (where migration included The magnitude of the disaster suffered by Finland begging). The number of people who turned to begging was massive. The abandoned farms were reoccupied, shortly after and Estonia in the 1690s will be better appreciated by the crisis, by landless peasants and by others. comparing its consequences with those of other major famines in European history. In the cold-wet hunger years of 1695-99, Scotland lost between 5 and 15% of its people. These figures result from the latest investigations by the Edinburgh economic historian Smout (1978, p. 181) who estimated 1. Introduction that, to a rough approximation, half the loss was due to In Part 2 of this series of articles, Neumann (1977) the increased death rate and the remaining half due to examined the effects of the drought of 1788 in France emigration (and a lower birthrate). The period was on the course of events leading to the revolution of popularly called "King William's 111 Years," "King 1789. The famine that arose in consequence of the William's Dear Years," and the "Black Years of King William" (Smout, 1978, p. 164). In the Irish Potato 1 Part 1, "The Mongol Invasions of Japan," was published in the November 1975 BULLETIN (56, 1167-1171); Part 2, Famine of 1845-46 about one million people, that is "The Year Leading to the Revolution of 1789 in France," ca. 12% of Ireland's population at the time, perished was published in the February 1977 BULLETIN (58, 163-168); of starvation (Salaman, 1949, pp. 303-304). In the Part 3, "The Cold Winter 1657-58, The Swedish Army famine year 1867-68 in Finland about 8% of the Crosses Denmark's Frozen Sea Areas," was published in the November 1978 BULLETIN (59, 1432-1437). 0003-0007/79/070775-13$07.25 2 Historically, Livonia was a Swedish province for nearly a © 1979 American Meteorological Society century, beginning in 1629. (See Fig. 3.) Bulletin American Meteorological Society 775 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/11/21 12:30 AM UTC 776 Vol. 60, No. 7, July 1979 population died of hunger and epidemics (Lefgren, rivers over a great part of Europe were in heavy flood 1973, p. 23). Thus, all the aforementioned dearth cases in 1695-97. Many of the rivers and lakes were frozen entailed a smaller population loss, percentagewise, than for comparatively long periods to late dates in spring. the disaster that visited upon Finland and Estonia in Another aspect to the LIA worth emphasizing (in 1695-97. As far as European history is known, only the connection with what will be said in regard to the Black Death of the 14th century caused as high and weather of the years preceding the years 1695-96 in higher losses (Abel, 1966, pp. 48-49) to any one nation Finland and Estonia) is the extreme variability of as the 1695-96 hunger did to the northern countries. weather conditions in space as well as time. Thus while The famine of 1695-97 in Estonia is referred to by the in the 1690s the glaciers of Iceland (and Norway) ex- Estonian historian Liiv (1938) as "The Great Famine in panded (Thorarinsson, 1943, pp. 28-29, 38-47), those Estonia 1695-97." In a rather similar vein the parallel of the Alpine region were in temporary retreat. This famine in Finland is referred to by Jutikkala (1955) as retreat did not prevent the weather that produced other "The Great Finnish Famine in 1696-97." In some cases extremes such as the great famine in France, the famine Finnish historians relate to these years as "The Years in (northern) Italy or the "solid" freezing in winter and of Many Deaths." It must be added, however, that so early spring of Swiss lakes. A series of good years was far as northern Europe goes, not only Finland and abruptly followed by years of inclement weather—one Estonia were afflicted. To a lesser extent Sweden example for this being the case of Finland (see Sec- (especially its northern region), Norway, and North- tion 4). west Russia suffered as well (Liiv, 1938, p. 105). In 1697 the famine in Sweden was quite grave, though the demographic consequences of the famine seem to have been much smaller than in Finland (Heckscher, 1954, 3. Sources of information on Finland p. 81; Utterstrom, 1965, p. 538). What we know about the Ice Ages, and especially about the climatic fluctuations in recent centuries, indicates 2. The general climatic setting that the "amplitude" of the fluctuations tends to in- crease poleward. On this basis, therefore, we would In climatic history the 1690s form part of a period anticipate that in the 1690s the climatic conditions in known under the name the "Little Ice Age" (LIA). northern Europe should have been even more inclement The limits of that "age" are often set as 1550 and 1850. than they were in the middle latitudes. There are no As is known, never since the peak of the last major contemporary meteorological observations for northern glaciation about 18 000 years ago, have the glaciers of Europe such as those began toward the close of the 17th Europe, Asia Minor, and North America extended so century in England and France. Tree-ring analyses are, far; snow lay for months on Ethiopia's high mountains however, available for Finland, due to the early work of (Lamb, 1966, p. 66). Boman (1927) and the more recent investigations of Siren (1963), and these will be referred to later. Sporadic In Europe, the 1690s were characterized by very remarks on some of the weather events of 1695-97 are cold springs and summers (von Rudloff, 1967, Fig. 22b), available in a number of different types of documents the somewhat uncertain estimate being that the average such as: temperature for the decade was 1.5°C lower than that for 1580-1790. In France the years 1690-92 had springs a) Reports of the Swedish Governors or Vice- and summers so cold and rainy that "with the harvest Governors to the King of Sweden (Finland and of 1693 began one of the worst famines western Europe Estonia were then parts of the Swedish Empire); had known since the early Middle Ages. It turned France into a 'big, desolate hospital without provisions' b) Sheriffs' and Bailiffs' reports; (the writer Fenelon's words), a concentration camp of c) Petitions of peasants to landowners (most of the the size of a kingdom, with Louis XIV the comman- great landowners resided in Sweden), and of the dant" (Le Roy Ladurie, 1972, p. 70). In 1695 the Po clergy and of peasants to the King; River overran meadows, fields, and destroyed crops, leading to a severe famine in the area.