Open Research Online The Open University’s repository of research publications and other research outputs Shakespeare, Decolonisation, and the Cold War Thesis How to cite: Taylor, James Lee (2018). Shakespeare, Decolonisation, and the Cold War. PhD thesis The Open University. For guidance on citations see FAQs. c 2017 The Author Version: Version of Record Copyright and Moral Rights for the articles on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. For more information on Open Research Online’s data policy on reuse of materials please consult the policies page. oro.open.ac.uk Shakespeare, Decolonisation, and the Cold War THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF THE OPEN UNIVERSITY WITHIN THE DISCIPLINE OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, SEPTEMBER 2017 BY JAMES LEE TAYLOR B.A. (Hons) (UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS) M.A. (OPEN UNIVERSITY) This thesis is entirely the work of the author and no part of it has previously been submitted for a degree or other qualification with any institution. Abstract This study considers the role that touring Shakespeare productions played in securing British interests during the Cold War and decolonisation. Focusing on a selection of British Council supported tours during the period the relationship between Shakespeare in Britain and Shakespeare abroad is examined. The evolution of touring Shakespeare’s use in cultural diplomacy is located within the broader history of Britain’s imperial decline and Cold War entanglements. The thesis draws upon the National Archive’s Records of the British Council; the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust’s collections; and the British Library’s Newspaper, and Manuscript collections. A wide-range of performance, administrative, and anecdotal accounts are brought to light in order to reveal the political and cultural tensions characterising each tour. The shift to using Shakespeare in post-war cultural diplomacy is determined through an examination of tours supporting British colonial interests in Egypt between 1939 and 1946, a formative era of anti-colonial agitation and emerging Cold War dynamics. The late 1940s saw touring Shakespeare assist in the re-colonisation of Australia, with cultural-diplomatic initiatives dedicated to strengthening Britain’s imperial and Cold War objectives. As the military stalemate of the 1950s witnessed the compensatory rise of culture as a political resource, Shakespeare tours countered Soviet influence in Austria, Yugoslavia, and Poland. The 1960s saw Shakespeare used in support of British economic interests in West Africa in general, and UK publishing interests in Nigeria in particular. The thesis concludes that Shakespeare productions were dispatched to Cold War and colonial destinations with the purpose of supporting Britain’s commercial and political interests; that Shakespeare proved to be an effective and protean cultural weapon in service to the British nation; and that contradictory results ensued, including resistance from reluctant hosts and disagreements within Britain’s metropolitan Shakespeare culture itself over Shakespeare’s global role. Acknowledgements For their guidance and friendship, I would especially like to thank my supervisors Professor David Johnson and Dr Edmund King. Within The Open University community, I have benefitted greatly from the help and advice of Dr Anthony Howell, Dr Sara Haslam, Professor Susheila Nasta, Dr Jonathan Gibson, and Dr Alex Tickell. Warm thanks as well to Dr Caroline Davis, Professor Martin Banham, Dr James Gibbs, and Professor Andrew Murphy. For early inspiration, special thanks to Amy Hurst, Madeleine Cox, Victoria Jones, and Roger Howell at the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust. To the staff and students of the Centre D’Etudes Franco Américain De Management Lyon, Université Jean Moulin’s SELF programme, and Maud Perez and Damien Bidollet, thank you so much for your encouragement and support over the years. I owe the greatest thanks to my loving family, Aya and Elliot. Table of Contents Illustrations List of Abbreviations Introduction 1 Chapter 1. Shakespeare and Cultural Diplomacy: Hamlet in the Mediterranean 19 Imperial Decline and the Rise of Cultural Diplomacy 22 Elite Diplomacy vs. Mass Propaganda: Lord Lloyd and Lord Beaverbrook 26 Tyrone Guthrie’s Hamlet at The Old Vic (1939) 31 The Old Vic Company’s Hamlet in Portugal (1939) 34 The Old Vic Company’s Hamlet in Italy (1939) 34 Anglo-Egyptian Relations 43 The Old Vic Company’s Hamlet in Egypt (1939) 49 The Cairo and Alexandria Drama Festivals (1944-1946) 55 The Donald Wolfit Company in Egypt (1945) 60 The John Gielgud Company’s Hamlet in Egypt (1946) 67 Conclusion 75 Chapter 2. Shakespeare and Re-colonisation: Richard III in Australia and The Tempest in Stratford-upon-Avon 78 The Post-War Re-colonisation of Australia 81 The Old Vic’s Richard III in Europe (1945) and Australia (1948) 89 The Commonwealth Tour’s Legacy 97 New Elizabethanism and the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre 101 New Britishness and the Festival of Britain 109 Loudon Sainthill at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre: The Tempest (1951 and 1952) 112 The Coronation of Elizabeth II and The Australian Elizabethan Theatre Trust Fund 122 Conclusion 126 Chapter 3. Shakespeare and the Cultural Cold War: Titus Andronicus in Eastern Europe 129 Military Stalemate and the Rise of Culture 134 The Soviet Relations Committee 139 Competing Hamlets in Moscow (1955) 143 The Canonisation of Titus Andronicus for Cold War Audiences 141 Reaching Eastern Europe 154 Titus Andronicus ‘Behind the Iron Curtain’ (1957) 156 Making Shakespeare Contemporary: The Legacy of the Titus Andronicus Tour 166 Conclusion 177 Chapter 4. Shakespeare and Decolonisation: Macbeth and Twelfth Night in Nigeria 179 Decision-Making Behind the Tour 183 Philanthropy and Education in Nigeria 188 The British Council in West Africa 192 Book Publishing and Mbari Centres 195 Geoffrey Axworthy’s The Taming of the Shrew (1962) 198 The Nottingham Playhouse 201 Opening Night: Macbeth in Lagos (1963) 205 British Accounts of the Nottingham Playhouse Tour (1963) 213 Conclusion 219 Conclusion 225 Bibliography 234 Illustrations: Figure 1. ‘The Tempest, 1951: Ferdinand and Miranda watch the Masque’. The Tempest directed by Michael Benthall at The Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, 1951. Photo by Angus McBean © RSC, 2017. Ref ID: 44598. Figure 2. ‘The Tempest, 1951: Ariel as a harpy’. The Tempest directed by Michael Benthall at The Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, 1951. Photo by Angus McBean © RSC, 2017. Reference ID: 44709. Figure 3. ‘The Tempest, 1951: Prospero commands Ariel and the Spirits’. The Tempest directed by Michael Benthall at The Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, 1951. Photo by Angus McBean © RSC, 2017. Reference ID: 44931. Figure 4. ‘The Tempest, 1951: Ariel and Prospero’. The Tempest directed by Michael Benthall at The Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, 1951. Photo by Angus McBean © RSC, 2017. Reference ID: 43931. Figure 5. ‘The Tempest, 1952; Margaret Leighton as Ariel’. The Tempest directed by Michael Benthall at The Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, 1952. Photo by Angus McBean © RSC, 2017. Reference ID: 45153. Figure 6. ‘The Tempest, 1952: Prospero and Ariel’. The Tempest directed by Michael Benthall at The Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, 1952. Photo by Angus McBean © RSC, 2017. Reference ID: 45376. Figure. 7. ‘The Tempest, 1951: Hugh Griffiths as Caliban’. The Tempest directed by Michael Benthall at The Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, 1951. Photo by Angus McBean © RSC, 2017. Reference ID: 44265. Figure. 8: ‘The Tempest, 1952: Prospero, Miranda and Caliban’. The Tempest directed by Michael Benthall at The Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, 1952. Photo by Angus McBean © RSC, 2017. Reference ID: 46013. Figure. 9: ‘The Tempest, 1952: Michael Hordern as Caliban’. The Tempest directed by Michael Benthall at The Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, 1952. Photo by Angus McBean © RSC, 2017. Reference ID: 45680. List of Abbreviations ABC Australian Broadcasting Corporation AETTF Australian Elizabethan Theatre Trust Fund ASIO Australian Security Intelligence Organisation CEMA Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts CRD Cultural Relations Department (UK Foreign Office) DAC Drama Advisory Committee (British Council Dance and Drama Department) ELT English Language Teaching EMB Empire Marketing Board ENSA Entertainment National Services Association IRD Information Research Department (UK Foreign Office) LOP Laurence Olivier Productions NAM The Non-Aligned Movement RSC Royal Shakespeare Company, Stratford-upon-Avon SMT Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon SRC Soviet Relations Committee (UK Foreign Office/British Council) USIS United States’ Information Services 1 Introduction This study concerns a variety of Shakespeare productions that travelled overseas between 1939 and 1964, a period defined by the Cold War and decolonisation. Although absent from most performance histories these touring events testify to Shakespeare’s extensive use in British cultural diplomacy. Over four chapters I present a range of case studies with the principle ones being: Tyrone Guthrie’s 1939 Old Vic tour of Hamlet to Portugal, Italy, Egypt, and Malta; The Donald Wolfit Shakespearean Company’s Hamlet in Egypt, 1945; The John Gielgud Company’s Hamlet in Egypt, 1946; the Australian leg of the Old Vic’s 1948 ‘Commonwealth Tour’ of Richard III; The Peter Brook Company’s 1955 Hamlet in Moscow; and The Nottingham Playhouse’s 1963 tour of Nigeria with Macbeth and Twelfth Night. In terms of UK productions, I also discuss the Shakespeare Memorial