CORPOREAL CONFIGURATIONS OF THE HEROIC AND THE MONSTROUS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ‘BEOWULF’, ‘THE SHAHNAMEH’ AND ‘TRISTAN’ By Pouneh Saeedi-Tabatabai A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of the Centre for Comparative Literature University of Toronto © Copyright by Pouneh Saeedi (2010) Corporeal Configurations of the Heroic and Monstrous: A Comparative Study of ‘Beowulf’, ‘The Shahnameh’ and ‘Tristan’ Pouneh Saeedi Doctor of Philosophy, 2010 Centre for Comparative Literature University of Toronto Abstract This dissertation explores various characteristics that define the monstrous and the heroic — both on their own and in conjunction with each other — in three representative texts of the Middle Ages, the Old English Beowulf (manuscript c.1000), the Persian epic, The Shahnameh (c.1010) and Gottfried von Strassburg’s Middle-High German poem, Tristan (c.1210), as it delves into the cataclysmic aftermath of their corporeal confrontation. At the core of this study of three linguistically and geographically different, yet thematically contiguous texts, lies the significance of corporeality in terms of its articulation of the heroic self and identification of the monstrous other. Far from being diametrically opposed, the heroic and monstrous bodies bear enough resemblance to justify René Girard’s use of the phrase ‘monstrous doubles’ in reference to the host of similarities they manifest in the course of their confrontations. However, as shall be demonstrated, heroic and monstrous bodies need not be engaged in a single battle to manifest signs of similitude. Particular properties, such as ‘gigantism’, could be read as tokens of heroism and monstrosity, depending on the context. Both Beowulf and Grendel in Beowulf , for example, stand out on account of their massive bulk, yet the former is marked as heroic; the latter, as monstrous. Significantly, the hero’s monstrosity not only endows him with an advantage over his fellow-humans, but also facilitates his mastery of monstrous bodies. The conquest of monstrous bodies overlaps with other paradigms of power including mastery over land and women. Gigantomachia and dragon-slaying tend to be coterminous with territorial ii claims. It is no coincidence that colonized lands are marked by their so-called ‘monstrous’ inhabitants, for as such, their conquest is rendered as both an act of heroism and a means of purification. Indeed, the purging of lands is a primordial priority of the heroic mission. Paradoxically, however, the hero has to be stained by elements of monstrosity in the first place to succeed at monstrous confrontations and goes on to acquire even more monstrous characteristics in a process which leads to ‘sublation’, the incorporation of an entity by a subsequent one in a way that leads to the manifestation of features of both. A third zone of possibilities comes to the fore in the midst of the entanglement of heroic and monstrous bodies. The clash between the heroic and the monstrous bodies could be read as a fusion, a marriage, which gives birth to a third party, in this case, a ‘Third Space’, a zone of discursivity and hybridity arising from the confrontation of an ‘I’ and a ‘Thou’. Significantly, the ‘Third Space’, in being unstable and fluid, is both susceptible to and a harbinger of change. In light of the fluidity of this space, the dismemberment and incorporation of bodies marking monstrous encounters take on added significance. One of the primary consequences of monstrous conflicts is ‘incorporation’, a freighted term, as shall be argued in the final chapter. While ‘incorporation’ can take place at the simple corporeal level, including the acts of cannibalism interspersed in Beowulf and The Shahnameh , it can constitute a mental challenge, a fusion of two different horizons of understanding. After all, in being both mixta and mira , monsters not only pose as obstacles to the heroic body, but also to the intellectual mind. Reflective of the mutability of times and the incertitude of man’s life during what has come to be known as the monstrous Middle Ages, monsters continue to charm us with their composite and enigmatic essence. iii Acknowledgements: I have been fortunate enough to have had the support of a group of exceptional people without whom this dissertation would never have come to fruition. I owe great thanks to my supervisor, Professor Jill Ross, for introducing me to many invaluable reference materials and offering me immense support in the course of my revisions. I owe her so much more, for it was upon taking her course ‘Body and Medieval Texts’ that I came to develop a passion for the monumental literature of the Middle Ages. I am immensely grateful to Professor Andy Orchard, without whose genius and unfailing acumen, this study would be lacking its indispensable annotations and contextual details. My sincere gratitude goes to Professor Amir Hassanpour who kindly accepted to assist me with the completion of this study under circumstances when Persianists of his calibre and depth were so hard to come by. I also wish to thank him for his meticulous editing of my text. This study would have never borne fruit were it not for the timely arrival of Professor Markus Stock at the University of Toronto’s academic scene. I have greatly benefited from Professor Stock’s guidance and discipline and am tremendously indebted to him for his constructive comments and criticism. I also wish to express my gratitude to Shahnameh -expert, Dr. Mahmoud Omidsalar, whose emails were crucial to my current study of Ferdowsi’s magnum opus. Without ever having had the pleasure of meeting Dr. Omidsalar, I have great respect for his true passion for Iran and Ferdowsi. My special thanks go to my external examiner, Professor Dean Miller, whose many suggestions proved to be of unparalleled value in the course of my subsequent revisions. In addition, I wish to thank Professor Reza Baraheni, who greatly helped me with structuring my thesis in its earlier stages. I am also grateful to Professor George Rigg and Dr. Rob Getz of the Centre for Medieval Studies for instilling in me a passion for Latin, this very much alive language of the academic world. There are so many more professors from iv whose vast knowledge I have benefited over the years including Prof. Brian Stock, Prof. Antonette diPaolo Healey, Prof. Veronika Ambros, Prof. David Townsend, Prof. Francesco Guardiani and Prof. Linda Hutcheon. Amongst my friends, I am thankful to Maryam Abedi, for being just a phone-call away despite her many responsibilities in Vancouver; Shabnam Ronaghi, for inviting me to Göteberg, Sweden, right after my Field Exams and Nasrin Askari, for her immense moral and academic support. Amongst my academic colleagues, I wish to thank Professor Marju Toomsalu of Ryerson University, whose friendly supervision helped me develop better pedagogical techniques in teaching Ryerson’s ESL students and Professor Victoria De Zwaan of Trent University, who trusted in my abilities and helped me better my course outline and teaching techniques while I was instructing for Trent’s Cultural Studies Department. I also wish to thank my librarian friends, especially, Hormuz Khakpour, Elaine Genius and Soheila Nikzadeh, who made working at Robarts so much fun. My thanks also go to Jane Lynch of Robart’s Interlibrary Loan Service and Lisa Fannin of the PhD Exams Office for their great support. It goes without saying that I would never have come this far had it not been for my parents’ undying love from two continents away. Their constant support has fueled me with much needed energy at moments of despair and nostalgia for a time and place that are no more. From a much closer distance, it has been the encouragements of my sister, Parastoo, that kept me on track. In particular, I wish to thank Paul Corvo whose love and friendship made this academic venture much more enriching, exciting, and, definitely, much less isolating than it could have been. It is to him and my family that I dedicate this work. v Table of Contents: Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………. ii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………… iv Abbreviations………………………………………………………………………………. viii Glossary of Zoroastrian Terminology……………………………………………………… x A Note on Transliteration…………………………………………………………………...xi Introduction………………………………………………………………………………… 1 Chapter One Heroic Bodies…………………………………………………….. 19 1.1. The Shahnameh : Guardianship of the Farr …………………. 28 1.2. Tristan : The Artist-Warrior………………………………….. 41 1.3. Beowulf: Singularity of Strength…………………………….. 64 Chapter Two Monstrous Bodies…………………………………………………78 2.1. Beowulf : Dirt of Darkness…………………………………… 89 2.2. The Shahnameh : Personified Plagues of Land……………….114 2.3. Tristan : Land-scourges and Demonic Forces……………….. 131 Chapter Three Clashing Bodies………………………………………………….. 146 3.1. Tristan : Ars Venandi and Ars Veneris ……………………… 156 3.2. Beowulf : Fah from feondum ………………………………... 168 3.3. The Shahnameh : Div-Binding and Heroic Initiation……….. 188 Chapter Four Incorporation…………………………………………………….. 206 4.1. Beowulf : Maw of the Monster………………………………. 214 4.2. The Shahnameh : Razm u Bazm ……………………………… 224 4.3. Tristan : Ruminatio …………………………………………... 236 vi Epilogue……………………………………………………………………………………. 249 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………….. 257 An Appendix to The Shahnameh …………………………………………………………... 285 vii Abbreviations: ABäG Amsterdamer Beitrage zur Alteren Germanistik AIr Acta Iranica ASE Anglo-Saxon England BT Bosworth, Toller, An Anglo-Saxon