Neolithic rock-art in the north of Europe; structures, discourses and agency Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy by Robert Ian Smith March 2015 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Index of Figures..........................vii Index of Tables..................................xi Index of Appendices...........................xii Acknowledgements..............................xiii Abstract................................................ xiv CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................... 1 The rock-art of Northern Europe in earlier prehistory ....................................................... 1 1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Structure of research ............................................................................................................ 3 1.2 Regions ................................................................................................................................ 5 1.3 Form ................................................................................................................................... 10 1.4 Date .................................................................................................................................... 11 1.5 Comparison ........................................................................................................................ 14 1.6 Research aims .................................................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................... 20 A social history of Northern European rock-art ................................................................. 20 2.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 20 2.1 History of British rock-art research ................................................................................... 21 2.1.1 Origins of British rock-art analysis: Pre-twentieth century ........................................ 21 2.1.2 British rock-art research from 1900 to 1980 ............................................................... 22 2.1.3 Rock-art research since 1980 ...................................................................................... 22 2.2 Rock-art research in Scandinavia....................................................................................... 33 2.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 33 2.2.2 Scandinavian rock-art research pre-1900 .................................................................... 34 2.2.3 Rock-art research in Scandinavia from 1900 .............................................................. 36 2.2.4 Post-processualist and contemporary approaches ....................................................... 40 2.2.5 Structuralism ............................................................................................................... 40 2.2.6 Phenomenology ........................................................................................................... 44 2.2.7 Social interaction ......................................................................................................... 47 2.2.8 Landscapes and soundscapes ...................................................................................... 47 2.2.9 Anthropological ........................................................................................................... 50 2.2.10 Scandinavian rock-art summary ................................................................................ 53 2.3 Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 55 2.4 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 56 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 59 Theory and methodology ....................................................................................................... 59 3.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 59 3.1 An archaeology of history and process .............................................................................. 61 3.1.1 Archaeology and the loss of meaning ......................................................................... 62 3.1.2 Deconstructing the nature of post-processualism ........................................................ 64 3.2 Meaning in archaeology ..................................................................................................... 69 3.2.1 Structuration ................................................................................................................ 71 3.2.2 ‘Power’ and its role in structuring social relations ...................................................... 74 iii 3.3 Approaching social structure through social systems ........................................................ 78 3.3.1 Rock-art dialogues....................................................................................................... 79 3.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 80 CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................. 83 Cumbrian rock-art I .............................................................................................................. 83 4.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 83 4.1 Environmental and historical sub-contexts ........................................................................ 85 4.1.1 Environmental sub-context I: Cumbria before people ................................................ 85 4.1.2 Environmental sub-context II: Human-environment interaction ................................ 89 4.1.3 Historical sub-context; lithics and axe exchange ........................................................ 94 4.1.4 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 97 4.2. Rock-art sub-context: current interpretations of Cumbrian rock-art ................................ 98 4.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 98 4.2.2 Previous approaches to rock-art in Cumbria ............................................................... 98 4.2.3 Summary ................................................................................................................... 103 4.3 Cumbrian rock-art ............................................................................................................ 104 4.3.1 Natural origins of Cumbrian rock-art ........................................................................ 104 4.3.2 Quantitative analysis of Cumbrian rock-art .............................................................. 106 4.3.3 Quantitative analysis II: Eastern Cumbria ................................................................ 114 4.3.4 Comparison between the Central Fells/North Cumbrian region and the Eastern Cumbrian region ................................................................................................................. 118 4.3.5 Summary ................................................................................................................... 121 4.4 Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 123 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................. 126 Textualising rock-art of Neolithic Cumbria ...................................................................... 126 5.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 126 5.1 Creating an archaeological text ........................................................................................ 127 5.1.1 Discourse analysis, a modern approach to a Neolithic problem ............................... 128 5.1.2 Discourse analysis research methodology................................................................. 130 5.1.3 Critical discourse analysis ......................................................................................... 130 5.1.4 Discourse and intertextuality ..................................................................................... 132 5.2 Textualising rock-art of the Central Fells/North .............................................................. 134 5.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 134 5.2.2 Introduction to Patterdale sites .................................................................................