Dimensions of Literacy A Conceptual Base for Teaching Reading and Writing in School Settings This page intentionally left blank Dimensions of Literacy A Conceptual Base for Teaching Reading and Writing in School Settings Second Edition Stephen B. Kucer Fordham University—Lincoln Center LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS 2005 Mahwah, New Jersey London Senior Acquisitions Editor: Naomi Silverman Assistant Editor: Erica Kica Cover Design: Kathryn Houghtaling Lacey Textbook Production Manager: Paul Smolenski Full-Service Compositor: TechBooks Text and Cover Printer: Sheridan Books, Inc. This book was typeset in 10/12 pt. Times, Italic, Bold, Bold Italic. The heads were typeset in Zapf Humanist, Zapf Humanist Bold, and Zapf Humanist Bold Italic. Copyright © 2005 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or any other means, without prior written permission of the publisher. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, New Jersey 07430 www.erlbaum.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kucer, Stephen B., 1950- Dimensions of literacy : a conceptual base for teaching reading and writing in school settings / Stephen B. Kucer.—2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8058-4940-8 (case : alk. paper)—ISBN 0-8058-4941-6 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Language arts. 2. Reading. 3. English language—Composition and exercises—Study and teaching. 4. Literacy—Social aspects. 5. Sociolinguistics. I. Title. LB1576.K83 2005 428.6—dc22 2004016811 Books published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates are printed on acid-free paper, and their bindings are chosen for strength and durability. Printed in the United States of America 1 0 987654321 Contents Preface ix I: Introduction 1 A Multidimensional View of Reading and Writing 3 Disciplinary Perspectives Versus Literacy Dimensions 6 A Literacy Beliefs Profile 7 A Literacy Story 7 About This Book 10 II: The Linguistic Dimension of Literacy 2 The Nature of Language 17 What Makes Language Language? 17 The Systems of Language 22 Context, Situation, and the Systems of Language 42 Conclusions 45 3 Oral andWritten Language Relationships 46 The Language Expressions, Context, and Processing Demands 46 Oral and Written Language Distinctions 50 v vi Contents The Link Among Letters, Sounds, and Spelling 53 A Little History on the Development of the English Spelling System 65 Conclusions 66 4 Language Variation 67 What Is Language Variation? 68 Causes of Language Variation 73 Language Variation and the Reading and Writing Processes 74 The Impact of Various Forms of Spoken English on Literacy Development 81 Conclusions 85 Revisiting What Makes Language Language 85 The Linguistic Dimension of the Literacy Story 86 III: The Cognitive Dimension of Literacy 5 The Constructive Nature of Perception 91 Perceptual Experiments 91 The Systems of Language, Memory, and Perception 102 Visual Processing and Memory 105 "A Pin for Dan" and "The Great Big Enormous Turnip" 108 Conclusions 117 6 TheReading Processes 118 Factors Influencing the Reader-Text-Writer Transaction 118 What Do Theories and Models Have to Do With Teaching Reading and Writing? 722 A Theory and Model of the Reading Process 123 An Examination of Proficient and Nonproficient Readers 133 Biliterate Readers 142 Contents vii Reading: An Alternate View 145 Conclusions 750 7 Understanding Written Discourse 151 The Nature and Role of Background Knowledge in Understanding 151 Word Knowledge and Comprehension 757 Context, Meaning, and Recall 767 Conclusions 766 8 The Writing Process 167 Revisiting the Reader-Text-Writer Transaction 767 A Theory and Model of the Writing Process 769 An Examination of Proficient and Nonproficient Writers 183 Cognitive Interrelationships Between the Reading and Writing Processes 797 Conclusions 792 The Cognitive Dimension of the Literacy Story 193 IV: The Sociocultural Dimension of Literacy 9 Understanding Literacy as Social Practices 197 Examining Our Own Literacy Practices 198 Group Memberships and Social Identities 205 Multiple Literacies, Identities, and Social Practices 206 Literacy in School and Out 208 Literacy and Its Relationship to Cognitive and Socioeconomic Development 220 Conclusions 224 I 0 The Authority of Written Discourse 225 The Nature of Knowledge 226 The Nature of Texts and Text Interpretation 232 viii Contents Conclusions 243 The Sociocultural Dimension of the Literacy Story 243 V: The Developmental Dimension of Literacy 11 Constructing the Written Language System 249 Why Learn Language? 257 Developmental Patterns and Principles 252 Interrelationships Between Reading and Writing Development 277 Variations on a Theme: Culture and Literacy Development 282 The Phonics Question 285 Conclusions 287 The Developmental Dimension of the Literacy Story 257 VI: The Educational Dimension of Literacy 1 2 The Dimensions of Literacy: Implications for Reading and Writing Instruction 291 Summarizing the Dimensions of Literacy 291 Reexamining Our Beliefs About Literacy 292 The Literacy Debates: Old and New 292 Teaching the Dimensions of Literacy 300 Challenges to Teaching the Dimensions of Literacy: The Politics of Instruction 308 Conclusions 310 References 311 Author Index 335 Subject Index 343 Preface Since my days as a doctoral student, the field of literacy and literacy education has expanded significantly. In fact, until recently, referring to literacy as a field or a discipline was not commonplace. Today, however, literacy studies—under a variety of names—can be found at most major universities across the United States. Accompanying this ongoing expansion of the domain of literacy—as well as promoting it—has been an evolution of our understanding of literacy itself. I entered graduate school when cognition was all the rage, having recently sup- planted or at least overshadowed the linguistic revolution for those of us with an interest in text processing. Since leaving graduate school as a student and returning as a faculty member, literacy has continued to evolve from a language process to an act of cognition, and currently, to a sociocultural expression. What has been lacking in this evolutionary process, however, is a synthesis of what we know—or at least what we think we know—literacy to be. Too often, each new view of literacy has re- placed rather than extended and reformulated prior views. Conceptualizing literacy in a more harmonic and holistic manner, therefore, is the primary goal of this book. Paradoxically, although this book highlights theory and research more than practice, teachers and teacher educators are its primary audience. Never in my lifetime have educational institutions, and teachers in particular, come under such scrutiny by the public. In many respects the standards movement, high-stakes test- ing, and leaving no children behind are holding classrooms hostage, determining what is taught, when it is taught, and how it is taught. If teachers of literacy are to have a voice in these policies, it is critical that they have an understanding of what literacy entails. Although politicians may understand literacy in reduced ways, teachers have an intuitive sense of the complexities of the literacy processes because they work with students who are reading and writing on a daily basis. This book attempts to make this teacher knowledge explicit and to more fully develop it. The book is organized around four interrelated themes: linguistic, cognitive, sociocultural, and developmental. Each theme represents an aspect or dimension ix x Preface of literacy that is utilized as readers and writers construct meaning through writ- ten language. These dimensions of literacy, however, operate in a transactive and symbiotic manner—each impacts and is impacted by all the others. The challenge in writing this book, therefore, has been to fully explain each dimension in a com- prehensible manner, yet also to demonstrate the interrelations among them. I have tried to meet this challenge by progressively drawing on information discussed in previous dimensions as later dimensions are introduced and addressed. Conclud- ing the book is a discussion about what all of this theory and research means for the classroom, for the teacher, and most of all, for the students. THE SECOND EDITION In writing the second edition, I have tried to be cognizant of the needs of the reader as well as where the field of literacy is taking us. To these ends, the second edition: • addresses the nature of language and oral-written language relationships in two chapters rather than in one; • similarly separates the discussion of the reading process and reading com- prehension into two distinct although interrelated chapters; • adds recent theory and research on technology and literacy throughout the relevant chapters; • expands the discussion of the "reading wars" and the points of contention among the participants; • more fully addresses instructional issues and implications throughout the book rather than primarily in the final chapter; and • updates the references throughout the entire book. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In true sociocultural fashion, many individuals and institutions have contributed to the writing of this book. First, I acknowledge the early contributions of my Indi- ana University graduate school mentors, Jerry Harste and Carolyn Burke, who ex- panded my view of literacy beyond simple letter, sound, and word recognition. My colleagues in the Graduate School of Education at