ADVERTIMENT. Lʼaccés als continguts dʼaquesta tesi doctoral i la seva utilització ha de respectar els drets de la persona autora. Pot ser utilitzada per a consulta o estudi personal, així com en activitats o materials dʼinvestigació i docència en els termes establerts a lʼart. 32 del Text Refós de la Llei de Propietat Intel·lectual (RDL 1/1996). Per altres utilitzacions es requereix lʼautorització prèvia i expressa de la persona autora. En qualsevol cas, en la utilització dels seus continguts caldrà indicar de forma clara el nom i cognoms de la persona autora i el títol de la tesi doctoral. No sʼautoritza la seva reproducció o altres formes dʼexplotació efectuades amb finalitats de lucre ni la seva comunicació pública des dʼun lloc aliè al servei TDX. Tampoc sʼautoritza la presentació del seu contingut en una finestra o marc aliè a TDX (framing). Aquesta reserva de drets afecta tant als continguts de la tesi com als seus resums i índexs. ADVERTENCIA. El acceso a los contenidos de esta tesis doctoral y su utilización debe respetar los derechos de la persona autora. Puede ser utilizada para consulta o estudio personal, así como en actividades o materiales de investigación y docencia en los términos establecidos en el art. 32 del Texto Refundido de la Ley de Propiedad Intelectual (RDL 1/1996). Para otros usos se requiere la autorización previa y expresa de la persona autora. En cualquier caso, en la utilización de sus contenidos se deberá indicar de forma clara el nombre y apellidos de la persona autora y el título de la tesis doctoral. No se autoriza su reproducción u otras formas de explotación efectuadas con fines lucrativos ni su comunicación pública desde un sitio ajeno al servicio TDR. Tampoco se autoriza la presentación de su contenido en una ventana o marco ajeno a TDR (framing). Esta reserva de derechos afecta tanto al contenido de la tesis como a sus resúmenes e índices. WARNING. The access to the contents of this doctoral thesis and its use must respect the rights of the author. It can be used for reference or private study, as well as research and learning activities or materials in the terms established by the 32nd article of the Spanish Consolidated Copyright Act (RDL 1/1996). Express and previous authorization of the author is required for any other uses. In any case, when using its content, full name of the author and title of the thesis must be clearly indicated. Reproduction or other forms of for profit use or public communication from outside TDX service is not allowed. Presentation of its content in a window or frame external to TDX (framing) is not authorized either. These rights affect both the content of the thesis and its abstracts and indexes. Department of Modern and Contemporary History Area of Contemporary History PhD programme in Comparative, Political and Social History Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona BRIDGE TO NOWHERE: KALININGRAD ON GEOPOLITICAL MAP BETWEEN RUSSIA AND EUROPE PhD thesis presented by SERGEY SUKHANKIN Supervisor: Prof. Francisco Veiga Rodríguez 2018 1 2 Acknowledgements I dedicate this thesis to my grandmother Anna Ivanovna Postnova, who along with her two infant children in the year 1945 undertook an arduous journey from a tiny village in Central Russia to a distant, war-torn and foreign (in each and every sense of this word) city of Konigsberg. One of them - my uncle Valentin – has raised me the man I am now. I could not have achieved anything I have so far without him. The second, my mother Liubov, has done her best nurturing me as a strong and unyielding person. To these three I owe my success in life and profession. I would also like to thank my beloved wife Alla, who has supported me in each and every endeavour I have undertaken. Her wise advises, tolerance and indefinite support during the most difficult episodes of my work on this thesis secured the ultimate success. Without her, I would never have been a person I am now. Last, but by no means lest, I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Francisco Veiga Rodriguez, who not only guided me during my work on this thesis but was the one who suggested me the topic I am working on now. Due to his wise advises, I have developed research skills and expanded my horizons. Thanks to Professor Francisco Veiga Kaliningrad is not only my birthplace, yet also the central element of my scientific interests. Without his input, I would not have become a researcher and scholar I have grown into. Finally, I would like to thank Spain. Time that I have spent in this country has changed my life, my career path and my interests. I value this experience very much. Without this, I would never have achieved what I have. 3 4 Table of Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................ 10 Part 1. Emergence of Kaliningrad on geopolitical map of Europe: from East Prussia to the last gasps of the Soviet Union (1945 - 1990).......................................................... 24 Chapter 1. From German Konigsberg to the Soviet Kaliningrad .............................. 26 1.1. Looking behind the closed scene: sealing the fate of Konigsberg (1941 – 1946) ............................................................................................................................ 26 1.2. The “German question”, Konigsberg and the “house divided against itself” .. 33 1.3. German population and the new regime: unwanted foreigners on the native land ...................................................................................................................... 37 1.4. The incorporation: challenges, threats and prospects ..................................... 40 Chapter 2. The post-war transformation of Kaliningrad: a thorny path to the unclear future ....................................................................................................................... 42 2.1. The “war trophy” or the “unwanted child”? ................................................... 43 2.1.1. Konigsberg and the East Prussia through the lens of the Soviet propaganda ......................................................................................................................... 44 2.1.2. “Oprichnina” and “zemshchina”: military dictate in the post-war Kaliningrad ...................................................................................................... 49 2.1.3. Constructing the wall: isolationism and the post-war Kaliningrad ........... 58 2.1.4. “…turned into the rubbles”. Portrayal of the post-war Kaliningrad: beyond hope or beyond common sense? ....................................................................... 61 2.1.5. Changing sociological portrait of Kaliningrad ......................................... 64 2.2 Building a “military bastion”: a “state-garrison” or a “garrison without a state”? ............................................................................................................................ 70 2.2.1. The “most militarized spot in Europe” .................................................... 70 2.2.2. Imposing greater control over public conscious, strengthening the anti- west propaganda ............................................................................................... 74 2.3. Economic recuperation of the post-war Kaliningrad: plans vs. the reality ...... 77 2.4. Kaliningrad and the “outer world”: matching the unmatchable? .................... 81 Chapter 3. Kulturkampf in Kaliningrad (1945 - 1990). Making war on the past – defeating the future .................................................................................................. 86 3.1. Propaganda and beyond................................................................................. 86 3.2. The campaign on renaming: looking beyond facts ......................................... 90 3.3. War on the Royal Castle: frenzy or strategy? ................................................. 92 In lieu of conclusion: last chance for Kaliningrad and the Soviet "fin de cycle" .... 97 5 Part 2. Kaliningrad between the “black hole of Europe” and the Russia´s “backwater district” (1991 – 2000) .............................................................................................. 102 Chapter 4. Kaliningrad after 1991: exclave, enclave or both? ................................. 102 4.1. Taking a dive into the theory of enclaves ..................................................... 102 4.2 Establishing the definitional framework ....................................................... 104 4.3. Economic features of enclaves: challenges and opportunities ...................... 108 4.4. Case studies: East Prussia (1919-1939), Hong Kong and Singapore ............ 111 4.4.1. East Prussia .......................................................................................... 111 4.4.2. Hong Kong ........................................................................................... 114 4.4.3. Singapore ............................................................................................. 116 Chapter 5. Overcoming the new “Time of Troubles” (1991 – 2000): Kaliningrad adjusting to the changing(challenging) Russia ....................................................... 118 5.1. The breakdown of the USSR and its impact on Kaliningrad Oblast: economics, politics and identity crisis ................................................................................... 121 5.1.1 Economic collapse, the “Black Hole of Europe” and implications for the image of