Informal Transport in the Developing World Table of Contents Informal Transport in the Developing World...................................................................................................1 Foreword.................................................................................................................................................1 Preface...................................................................................................................................................2 PART ONE: Informal transport: Definitions, Markets, and Organization................................................2 Chapter One: Informal Transport: A Global Overview.....................................................................3 Chapter Two: The Informal Transport Market................................................................................13 Chapter Three: Organization, Regulation, and Public Resources.................................................43 PART TWO: Informal Transport in Southeast Asia..............................................................................54 Chapter Four: Vans, Motorcycles, and Pedicabs: Informal Transport in Bangkok, Thailand.........54 Chapter Five: Informal Transport in a Purely Privatized Transit Marketplace: Metropolitan Manila, The Philippines...........................................................................................................73 Chapter Six: From Becaks and Ojeks to Microbuses and Minibuses: Jakarta, Indonesia.............94 PART THREE: Other International Cases..........................................................................................120 Chapter Seven: Balancing Public versus Private Transport Services: Kingston, Jamaica..........121 Chapter Eight: Brazil’s Burgeoning Informal Transport Sector.....................................................133 Chapter Nine: Informal Transport in Africa...................................................................................149 PART FOUR: Toward a Normative Policy Framework.......................................................................162 Chapter Ten: Strategies for Rationalizing and Enhancing Informal Transport Services..............163 Chapter Eleven: Policy Responses and Responsibilities.............................................................172 Appendix A: Survey Protocols for Field Research Conducted in Bangkok, Manila, and Kingston.....178 Appendix B: Survey Approach And Questionnaire: Study of Becak and Ojek Services in Jakarta, Indonesia...........................................................................................................................................182 i ii Informal Transport in the Developing World by Robert Cervero United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) Nairobi, 2000 The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the secretarial of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Mention of firm names and commercial products does not imply the endorsement by the United Nations. HS/593/00E ISBN 92−1−131453−4 Cover Photo: Robert Cervero Foreword Rapid motorization and inadequate urban transport planning and management have lead to intolerable levels of traffic, congestion, air pollution and lost urban economic productivity. The growing use of largely inefficient private automobile transport in very densely populated cities to meet the increase in demand for urban transport has reduced the I efficiency and effectiveness of public transport. Falling levels of resources to subsidize these systems has led to deteriorating service and revenue deficiencies. Those urban residents unable to afford private transport have been the most negatively affected, as alternatives for travelling other ways have either completely disappeared or have become increasingly out of reach financially. In response, the informal transport sector has burgeoned throughout cities in the both the developed and developing worlds, filling the gap of inadequate and increasingly expensive public transport. In many cases, these systems consist of non−motorized transport such as are found in Asia, or include the mini−vans (matatus) of Nairobi and Mexico City or the “Jeepneys” of Manila. While in some cases these informal systems are efficient, effective and meet real transport needs for many urban residents, in other cases they are yet to be regulated and organised thus posing a threat to road safety and the environment. Local, regional and national transport decision−makers and managers need the knowledge, tools and techniques to more rationally plan and regulate informal transport in order to maximize its inherent economic advantage vis−a−vis existing and planned public transport. It is essential it be incorporated fully into the overall transport fabric of the city to provide a much−needed complementary role, particularly for those residents unable to afford cars. I am confident that this publication will help policy makers, managers and researchers working in the area of urban transport to further their knowledge and understanding of the dynamics of informal transport in the developing world. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Dr. Robert Cervero of the University of California at Berkeley, the principal author of this publication; Dr. David Maunder of the Transport Research Laboratory, U.K.; Dr. 1 Yordpol Taniboriboon of the Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand; John Flora of the World Bank; and Brian Williams of UNCHS (Habitat) for their invaluable contributions as peer reviewers and editors of the publication. Anna Kajumulo Tibaijuka Executive Director United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) Preface This study was carried out at the request of the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat). The primary aim was to review the market, organizational, and regulatory characteristics of the informal transport sector throughout the world with an eye toward identifying promising enabling and remedial strategies. The hope also was to give greater visibility to this often ignored sector. Brian Williams was Habitat’s project officer in charge of overseeing the work. I owe a great deal of gratitude to Brian for helping conceptualize the study and define the research approach, and for providing helpful suggestions throughout. A number of other individuals also deserve recognition for their valuable assistance and input to the work. Four graduate students from the University of California at Berkeley provided research assistance. Aaron Golob assisted in compiling and translating materials on clandestine vans in Brazil. Ria Hutabarat helped with the literature reviews of informal transportation issues in Indonesia and Africa. Pitch Pongsawat compiled and translated materials for the Bangkok case. And Bambang Susantono assisted with designing, implementing, and interpreting the survey of becak and ojek operators in Jakarta. Individuals who also provided helpful suggestions along the way include Walter Hook of the Institute for Transport and Development Policy; Paul Barter of the SUSTRAN Resource Centre in Kuala Lumpur; Antti Talvitie, Tilly Chang, Josè Barbéro, John Flora, and Edward Dotson of the World Bank; and Bruce Winston and Chiaki Kuranami of Padeco Company, Ltd. This study would not have been possible without the generosity and assistance of many individuals who gave their time in helping me carry out case−study field work. The following individuals helped with the Bangkok case. Apiwat Ratanawaraha and Sompong Sirisoponsilp of Chulalongkorn University; Chamiong Poboon of the National Institute of Development Administration; Silpachai Jarukasemratana of the Ministry of Transportation; Pichid (Joe) Uasakunkiat of the Thai Cycling Club; and John Ernst of Urban Transport Ecology. Those who helped with the Manila case study were: Hussein Lidasan, Manuel Apuan, Jun Villoria, Danielle Guillen, and Ramon Fernan of the University of the Philippines; George Esguerra of the Department of Transportation and Communications; Jejomar Binay of the Transportation Licensing Board; and Charles Melhuish of the Asian Development Bank. Providing useful information and insights on informal transport in Kingston were: Alton Fletcher of the Jamaica Urban Transit Company; John McFarland of the Jamaica Transport Authority; Dorothy Clark of the Ministry of Transportation and Public Works; and Arthur Chin, an independent franchise−holder. And of help in compiling materials on cladestine vans and motorcycle−taxis in Brazil, and in Rio de Janeiro, in particular were: Ronaldo Balassiano, João Oliviera, Jr., and many of the faculty and students of PET/COPPE at the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. To all of these individuals, I owe a great deal of gratitude. The views expressed in this report are those of the author and not necessarily those of the sponsor or anyone else. The author alone is responsible for any errors or omissions that might be contained in this report. Robert Cervero University of California at Berkeley August, 2000 PART ONE: Informal transport: Definitions, Markets, and Organization Part One provides a global portrait of informal transport services. Place−setting is its main purpose − to set a context, to define the sector in its many shapes and forms, and to raise key issues and policy concerns. 2 Chapter One commences with