Travelling to Peru: Representation, Identity and Place in British Long-haul Tourism L.C. Desforges Ph.D. University College London Abstract This thesis focuses on contemporary British travellers visiting Peru. It examines the investments in and uses of long-haul travel in the construction and narration of self- identity, in particular exploring the relationship between representations of place, travel practices and identities. Using literatures based in post-colonial theory and tourism studies, the thesis argues for the contribution which a study of the desires of 'First World' consumers can make to the wider project of understanding and intervening in tourism's socio-economic role in the modern world. The qualitative methodologies used in the thesis reflect the need to conceptualise tourists as actively constructing the 'imaginative geographies' of tourism. The use of both participant observation at tourist sites in Peru, and a series of in-depth interviews with returned travellers, provide an account of the important role of travel in the participants lives and the consequences for their travel practices. The empirical research undertaken for the thesis shows that travel is an important part of the ongoing construction of an 'autobiography' of the self by the travellers who took part in the project. In particular travel practices are associated with, and used to narrate, a sense of living a fulfilled life. The projects of travel to Peru are based in an 'authorisation' of travel as set of practices which provide 'direct' and 'unmediated' access to spatial difference, such as the 'authentic' Peru. In their material travel practices in Peru, travellers therefore have a very clear sense of the 'proper conduct' which they have to enact on the ground if they are to achieve this sense of fulfilment. The thesis concludes that by understanding the 'fetishisations' of place invested in by travellers, studies of tourist consumption open up new spaces for thinking about and intervening in the politics of travel. 2 Acknowledgements My biggest thanks go to my supervisor, Jacquie Burgess, who has offered help, support and sound advice which have been absolutely invaluable in both the completion of this thesis and more widely. In the Department of Geography at University College London, special thanks to Phil Crang and Claire Dwyer, as well as other members of staff who have offered help and advice, particularly Richard Dennis, Nuala Johnson, Dawn Rotherham, Anne Singleton and Ann Varley. The post-graduate community which came and went in the three years I was in the Department of Geography has also been a huge source of friendship, support and ideas, particularly Tracey Bedford, Kevin Collins, Adrian Chappell, James Kneale, Ben Malbon, Jon May, Simon Pinnegar and Jeremy Stein. Thanks to all those who attended my workshop in November 1994, especially Sarah Radcliffe and John Urry. Many of my colleagues at Lampeter have shaped this thesis, particularly Ian Cook who also attended my workshop, Dave Atkinson, Tim Cresswell, Caron McKee, Catherine Nash, Jane Norris-Hill, and Judith Watterson. Thanks also to the students who took my tourism course in 1996-7. I gratefully acknowledge the financial and technical support I have received, particularly from the Economic and Social Research Council who generously funded this project, and the Graduate School at U.C.L. Many thanks to Guy Baker in the Drawing Office for producing the maps. Simon Turner has been extremely generous in allowing me to use some of his photographs of Peru to illustrate the thesis. Gracias to Marieli Garcia de la Torres and Diego de Jesus Flores Jaime of the U.C.L. language school. Many people in Peru offered their time for my project including Hector fsoia of Andean Tours, Ibeth Acuña of FOPTUR, the Director Nacional de Turismo Sr. Pablo Lopez de Romaña, Richard Elgar at the South American Explorers Club, as well as Kinjyo Tours, Turismo Pacifico, Viracocha Turismo, Lima Tours, Gatur Cusco and Condor Travel. Thanks also to Journey Latin America, Trips Worldwide, Wildlife Discovery, Lonely Planet, South America Experience and the Islington Travellers Fair for their assistance in contacting travellers. But most of all, a huge thank you to all those who participated in the project, as without their willingness to give time, energy and commitment this thesis would have not been possible. I owe much to my parents, Martin and Helen Desforges, and to all my family in Sheffield and beyond. This thesis holds the memory of my grandmother, Agnes Estella Desforges, who died in April 1996. Many friends have kept my spirits up during the past few years, particularly Leala, Sophie, John-Paul, Geoff, Cath, Tagore, Anna, Julie and Lucy, and in Cusco, Elvira, Justo and Luis. Gail Davies has shared the pains and now hopefully the 3 pleasures of doing a PhD, and I have been extremely thankful for her close friendship over the last four years. Finally, heartfelt thanks to Chrissy Potter, to whom I hope I have returned the love and affection she has shown me. She has been one of the few people still prepared to take me on holiday. 4 Contents Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 3 Contents 4 List of Figures 7 Chapter 1 Introduction: Representation, Identity and the Politics of Travel 1.1 Introduction 11 1.2 'Mrs Turner Cutting the Grass: Carol Shield's travel story 12 1.3 Representing Place and Identity: Edward Said's post-colonial projects 15 1.4 Travel Stories, the Post-Colonial Project and Popular Knowledges 19 Chapter 2 Touring the Travel Circuit: Narratives of Self, Place and Displacement 2.1 Introduction 24 2.2 Gazing on the Other: tourism studies and Orientalism 25 2.2.1 A Brief History of Tourism Studies 25 2.2.2 Tourism Studies and Orientalism: selves, Others, power and politics 28 2.3 Travellers in Cultural Geography: identity, imagination and representation. 33 2.3.1 Cultural Geography and Post-colonialism 33 2.3.2 Feminism and Colonial Diversity 36 2.3.3 'Border Crossings': metaphors of travel in social theory 40 2.4 'Travel Circuits': places, practices, identities 46 2.5 Conclusions 48 Chapter 3 Researching Tourists: Methodologies 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 Researching Identities: conceptualising tourists, politics and methodologies 49 3.2.1 The Politics of Post-Colonial Research 50 3.2.2 Tourists and the Circuit of Culture 54 5 3.3.3 In-Depth Interviews and Participant Observation 58 3.4 Practices of Qualitative Fieldwork with Tourists 61 3.4.1 Recruitment of Participants 62 3.4.2 Practices of Participant Observation 66 3.4.3 Practices of In-Depth Interviewing 67 3.4.4 Analysis and Writing 72 3.5 Conclusions 73 Chapter 4 Tourism in Peru: A Contextualising Account 4.1 Introduction 75 4.2 Tourism in Peru: geographies, histories and institutions 75 4.2.1 'Bienvenido al Peru': the geographical stage of tourism in Peru 76 4.2.2 Historical Contexts: the institutionalisation of tourism 83 4.2.3 Operators, Wholesalers and Retailers: organising the tourist industry 92 4.3 Travelling to Peru: independent, group and bespoke travellers 93 4.3.1 Independent Travellers 94 4.3.2 Group Travellers 95 4.3.3. Bespoke Travellers 97 4.4 Summary 98 Chapter 5 Telling Travel Stories: Travelling Identities 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 'Setting Off: starting long-haul travel 99 5.2.1 "I'm Not Mrs Average": travel and the re-imagination of identity 100 5.2.2 Working at Identities: careers and travel 102 5.2.3 Autobiography and Travelling Identities 108 5.3 'Homecomings': using travelling identities 110 5.3.1 Sharing Meanings: communities of travel 112 5.2.2 Contesting Travelling Identities 115 5.2.3 "Better Than Taking Pills": travel memories and identity 118 5.4 Conclusions: reflexive autobiographies and traveffing identities 119 6 Chapter 6 Places of Difference: Geographical Imaginations, 'Border Crossings' and Travelling Identities 6.1 Introduction 121 6.2 Places of Difference: authenticity, primitivism and nature in Peru 122 6.3 Authorising Travel: the mobilisation of imaginative geographies 127 6.3.1 Institutions, 'Border Crossings' and the Other 128 6.3.2 "They might as well watch a cinema screen": authorising independent travel 130 6.3.3 Assertion and Ambiguity: authorising group and bespoke travel 134 6.4 Positioning Travel: 'border crossings and identity 138 6.5 Conclusions 143 Chapter 7 Practices of Travel: The Journey to Machu Picchu 7.1 Introduction 144 7.2 'Starting the Trek': the Explore group on the Inca Trail 145 7.3 'Viewpoint 1': proper conduct on the Inca Trail 150 7.3.1 Proper Conduct and the Travel Industry 150 7.3.2 Themes in the Construction of Proper Conduct 152 7.4 Mountain Passes and Parties: days 2-3 of the Inca Trail 154 7.5 'Viewpoint 2': bodies along the way 157 7.6 'The Big Day': Arriving at Machu Picchu 163 7.7 'Viewpoint 3': Others along the way 167 7.7.1 The Arrival at Machu Picchu 168 7.7.2 The Ethnicised Other and Proper Relational Conduct 169 7.7 Summary 173 Chapter 8 Conclusions: Tourism, Consumption and the Politics of Travel 8.1 Introduction 174 8.2 Reworking Tourist Consumption in Peru 174 8.3 The Politics of Travel: translation and tourist consumption 177 8.3.1. Post-Colonialism and the Politics of Translation 177 8.3.2 Translation and Tourist Consumption 179 8.4 Tourism Studies, Geography and Travel as Translation 186 7 Bibliography 190 Appendix 1 208 Appendix 2 210 Appendix 3 217 List of Figures 1. Map of Peru. 77 2. 'Cleanliness is Life': street scene, Miraflores, Lima (LD). 78 3. View over Cusco: the Plaza de Armas and the cathedral (ST).