Safavid Conversion Propaganda in Ottoman Anatolia and the Ottoman Reaction, 1440s-1630s Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University by Ayse Baltacioglu-Brammer, M.A. Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2016 Dissertation Committee: Jane Hathaway, Advisor Carter V. Findley Scott Levi Copyright by Ayse Baltacioglu-Brammer 2016 Abstract This dissertation explores the Sunni-Shi‘ite divergence in the early modern period, not merely as religiously derived, but as a meticulously carried out geo-political battle that formed the base of the sectarian conflict in the region today. One of the few studies to utilize both Safavid and Ottoman primary sources within the framework of identity formation and propaganda, my study argues that the “religious dichotomy” between “Ottoman Sunnism” and “Safavid Shi‘ism” was a product of the Safavid- Ottoman geo-political and fiscal rivalry rather than its cause; it further holds that examining the Shiitization of Safavid Iran and Ottoman Anatolia within a larger geo- political framework is critical to understanding early modern Middle Eastern states and societies. At the time, the Shi‘ite population of Anatolia – called Kızılbaş (“red heads” in Turkish) – constituted the largest Muslim minority group in the Ottoman Empire and was the principal catalyst for conflict between the Ottoman and Safavid empires. Yet it was only after the politicization of the Safaviyya Sufi movement that Istanbul perceived its Kızılbaş subjects as a threat to its geo-political legitimacy and security in the volatile regions of central and eastern Anatolia, as well as the frontier regions of Iraq. The Ottoman central authority therefore shifted its attention to pro- Safavid propaganda activities in Anatolia, which were conducted not only to recruit new followers for the Shi‘ite Islam, but also to find soldiers and taxpayers for the newly established Safavid state. Breaking away from traditional sectarian narratives, ii this dissertation examines the wildly varying policies of the Ottoman state toward its Kızılbaş subjects and the importance of pro-Safavid religious and political propaganda in the context of state and identity formation and confessionalization. iii Acknowledgments The preparation and writing of this dissertation would not have been possible without the help, encouragement, and advice of many individuals and institutions, and I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all of them. Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Prof. Jane Hathaway, who nurtured me and helped me to grow as a historian. Her continuous support and guidance in my graduate study and research, as well as her patience, motivation, immense knowledge, and meticulousness have helped me tremendously throughout the last seven years as a graduate student and ultimately as a successful candidate in the harsh academic job market. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor. Besides my advisor, I would like to thank the other members of my thesis committee, Prof. Carter Findley and Prof. Scott Levi, for their insightful comments and encouragement, but also for their thought-provoking comments and questions, which led me to widen my research from various perspectives. I also greatly appreciate their support throughout the long period of job applications and interviews, when they graciously provided reference letters and interview tips and suggestions. My sincere thanks also go to Prof. Geoffrey Parker, Prof. Theodora Dragostinova, Prof. Thomas “Dodie” McDow, Prof. Randolph Roth, Prof. David Staley, and Prof. Alan Beyerchen, who contributed to this project and my improvement as a graduate student through either stimulating suggestions or encouragements. I also would like to thank Dr. Saeed Honarmand and Dr. Javad Abbasi for teaching me Persian, the most beautiful language in my opinion. In terms of iv learning Persian, I would also like to thank my Iranian roommates, who became my lifelong friends –Akram, Sareh, Sepideh, Zahra, Mahernaz, and Soma- who, whenever I am in Iran, listen to me patiently and answer my silly questions. Furthermore I would also like to acknowledge the crucial role of the staff of the Office of Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives in Istanbul, Malek Manuscript Library in Tehran, and University of Isfahan Manuscript Library in Isfahan. Their permission and help to locate, use, and decipher many archival documents and manuscripts made this work possible. Among many people, I would like to mention Dr. Mustafa Küçük in Istanbul and Shohreh Ziaee in Tehran, whose expertise and patience helped me tremendously. I would also like to mention my dear friend Hamidreza Taravat, who not only spent hours with me at the manuscript library at the University of Isfahan to deal with many unexpected bureaucratic problems, but also guided me to many beautiful neighborhoods of Isfahan that I would not have seen otherwise. I gratefully acknowledge the generous support of the Bradley Foundation, Mershon Center for International Security Studies, Sydney N. Fisher Endowment, and the Department of History at OSU. Their support enabled me to conduct research in Turkey and Iran for over a year. In the last year, the Ohio State University Graduate School’s Presidential Fellowship made it possible for me to focus on writing, and I am extremely grateful for this opportunity. I would like to thank Prof. Rudi Matthee, whose support as an external faculty referee made my application for this prestigious fellowship more competitive. My time at OSU has been enjoyable in large part due to the many friends and groups that became a part of my life. I am grateful for the time I spent and the memories that I collected with classmates, friends, and many other people on and around campus. Special thanks goes to my “partners in crime,” Yeliz Çavuş, Ayşenur Dal, Aşkın Güler Yiğitoğlu, and Deniz Ay, whose friendship filled this long and often painful journey with unforgettable memories that I will carry v with me wherever I go. Among many others, I would also like to name Patrick Scharfe, Gibran Siddiqui, Isacar Bolaños, Saba Nasseri, Catalina Hunt, Sanja Kadrić, Stephanie Honchell, Ehsan Estiri, Yiğit Akın, Vefa Erginbaş, Libby Marvel, Cameron Jones, Liz Perego, James and Nurcan Helicke, who made my graduate life easier and more enjoyable with their friendship and help. Lastly, I would like to thank my family for all their love and encouragement. My parents, Mustafa and Zeynep Baltacıoğlu, raised me with a love for education and supported me in all my pursuits, even when it meant changing my career, getting a second college degree, and moving to another country. My sisters, Melike and Nur, encouraged me and made me laugh whenever I needed them from thousands of miles away. My mother-in-law, Kate Bracken, and late father-in- law, Chris Bracken, opened their arms and home and made me feel loved and cared for during all these years that I have spent away from my parents. The best outcome from these past seven years has been finding my best friend, soul mate, and husband, Beau J. Brammer. Beau’m, no words can convey what your unconditional love and support mean to me. These past years have not been an easy ride for us, both professionally and personally. I, however, feel that we both learned a lot about life and strengthened our commitment and determination to each other and to live life to the fullest. We not only grew as a couple, but we also embarked on our greatest ongoing “project,” the joy of our lives, and the biggest challenge and reward that one can ever imagine, to be parents to our daughter Ipek Nicole. All these years, you have been there to instill confidence in me whenever I questioned my potential and intellect, whenever I felt hopeless and miserable, and whenever I thought there would be no end for this often-times painful adventure called Ph.D. Without your faithful support and encouragement –and editing, of course- I would not have accomplished this degree. Hence, I dedicate this work to you. I love you. vi Vita June 1999 .............................................Nene Hatun High School, Ankara, Turkey June 2003 ..............................................B.A., Communications, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey June 2009 ..............................................B.A., History, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey 2009 to present ......................................Graduate Student & Graduate Teaching Associate, History, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA Publications “The Emergence of the Safavids as a Mystical Order and Their Subsequent Rise to Power in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.” In The Safavids, ed. Rudi Matthee. London: Routledge, forthcoming 2016. “The Formation of Kızılbaş Communities in Anatolia and Ottoman Responses, 1450s- 1630s.”International Journal of Turkish Studies Vol 20, Nos. 1&2 (2014): 21-48. “The Origins of Alawites and the Alawite Capture of Power in Syria.” In Origins: Current Events in Historical Perspective, November 2013. Fields of Study Major Field: History Area of Special Interest: Islamic History Minor Fields: Central Asian History, Early Modern European History vii Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................. .ii Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................