Designing Digital Experiences in Archaeology: Integrating Participatory Processes into Archaeological Practice Volume I Francesca Dolcetti PhD University of York Archaeology December 2020 Abstract Archaeology is a graphically rich discipline that has always applied various forms of visualisation to communicate information and interpretation about the archaeological record. In recent decades, the increasing dominance of digital techniques for archaeological visualisation has led to a rapid uptake of digital products, such as 3D models, often without consideration of users’ diverse needs or assessment of their impacts on audiences. This research seeks to address such issues by incorporating User Experience Design (UXD) and Participatory Design (PD) processes into archaeological practice. Through two distinct iterations of design and assessment of digitally mediated experiences, this research explores key themes around UXD in archaeology by investigating the following research questions: ● What is the impact of 3D visual media upon a diverse range of audiences, specifically how different users (specialists and non-specialists alike) engage with this specific form of (re)presentation of the past? ● How can we integrate evaluation frameworks and iterative processes into our methodologies in order to more meaningfully incorporate users’ feedback into the design and improvements of these digital resources? ● How can we incorporate UXD and PD processes into archaeological practice to create digital products tailored to the needs and expectations of our audiences? The first iteration of this research focuses on evaluating the impact that interactive 3D models have upon different audiences, using the case study of the Middle Bronze Age Cypriot settlement at Erimi- Laonin tou Porakou. The second iteration aims at assessing the design process behind the creation of digital resources using PD practices, through a series of workshops on the co-design of digitally mediated experiences in archaeology and heritage. The thesis ultimately articulates practical guidelines for archaeologists and other practitioners on incorporating UXD and PD approaches into archaeology. Such guidelines should then enable end users and stakeholders to be involved in digital resource development from the outset, critically tailoring these digital experiences to the needs and expectations of their audiences. 2 List of Contents Abstract Page 2 Table of Contents Page 3 List of Tables Page 8 List of Figures Page 9 List of Accompanying Material Page 13 Acknowledgments Page 14 Declaration Page 15 1 Introduction Page 16 1.1 Background Page 18 1.2 Research Problem Page 20 1.2.1 Research Question and Aims Page 24 1.2.2 Research Design Page 25 1.3 Thesis Chapter Outline Page 34 2 3D Modelling and Visualisation in Archaeology Page 37 2.1 Historical Background Page 37 2.2 3D Visualisation in Archaeology: Criticisms and Applications Page 43 2.2.1 3D Visualisation: Realism, Transparency and Authenticity Page 44 2.2.2 3D Visualisation and Field Archaeological Investigation Page 49 2.2.3 3D Visualisation and Cultural Heritage Dissemination Page 54 2.3 Summary Page 59 3 Interactive Digital Media in Heritage: a Review of the Field Page 61 3.1 Visitor Studies: Experiences in Museums and Heritage Sites Page 61 3.2 Museums and Heritage Sites in the Digital Era Page 66 3.3 Evaluation Studies of Interactive Digital Media Page 69 3 3.3 Summary Page 76 4 Research Methods and Data Collection Page 78 4.1 Research Questions Page 81 4.2 The Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou Interactive 3D Model Page 81 4.2.1 History of the Project Page 83 4.2.2 The Site and its History Page 85 4.2.3 Excavation Research Questions and Perspectives Page 89 4.2.4 Methods Page 90 4.2.4.1 Data Collection Page 91 4.2.4.2 3D modelling and UI development Page 93 4.2.4.3 Participants and Data collection Page 100 4.3 Participatory Design Workshops Page 105 4.3.1 Historical Background Page 106 4.3.2 Methods Page 110 4.3.2.1 Activity 1: Case Study Description Page 110 4.3.2.2 Activity 2: UX Design Page 111 4.3.2.3 Activity 3: Prototyping Page 112 4.3.2.4 Activity 4: Evaluation Page 113 4.3.2.5 Participants and Data Collection Page 113 4.4 Data Analysis Page 117 4.5 Ethics and Access Page 118 4.6 Summary Page 119 5 Evaluation of the Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou Interactive 3D model: Analysis and Results Page 120 5.1 Interviews and First Focus Group Page 121 5.1.1 Efficacy of the 3D model for Archaeological Research Page 121 5.1.2 Avatars: Efficacy and Unrealism Page 123 4 5.1.3 Emotional Attachment Page 125 5.1.4 Different Audiences Needs and Expectations Page 125 5.2 Second Focus Group Page 128 5.2.1 Access and Circulation within Buildings Page 129 5.2.2 Use of Spaces Page 129 5.2.3 Embodiment Page 130 5.3 Questionnaires Page 131 5.3.1 Efficacy Page 132 5.3.2 Immersivity Page 134 5.3.3 Comprehensibility Page 138 5.3.4 Usability Page 139 5.3.5 Engagement Page 140 5.4 Summary Page 144 6 Interviews with Digital Heritage Practitioners and Museum Curators: Analysis and Results Page 149 6.1 Interactive Digital Media: Why, What and for Whom Page 150 6.2 Audience Expectations Page 151 6.3 Evaluation: Aims, Approaches and Efficacy Page 153 6.4 Audience Response Page 157 6.5 Best Practices, Participatory Process and Storytelling Page 161 6.6 Summary Page 163 7 Participatory Design Workshops: Evaluation of Co-design Processes and Resources Page 166 7.1 Pilot Workshop Page 168 7.1.1 Case Study Description Page 169 7.1.2 UX Design/Prototyping Page 173 7.1.3 Evaluation Page 177 5 7.1.3.1 Observations Page 177 7.1.3.2 UX Prototypes Page 178 7.1.3.3 PD Process Page 181 7.2. ARKWORK Workshop Page 184 7.2.1 Case study description Page 185 7.2.2 UX Design Page 187 7.2.3 Prototyping Page 190 7.2.4 Evaluation Page 192 7.2.4.1 Observations Page 193 7.2.4.2 Activities Recordings Page 194 7.2.4.3 UX Prototypes Page 197 7.2.4.4 PD Process Page 199 7.3 Summary Page 205 8 Discussion Page 207 8. 1 Review of the Findings Page 208 8.2 Rethinking UXD in Archaeology: Lessons Learned from Co-design Workshops Page 209 8.2.1 The Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou Case Study Page 210 8.2.2 The ARKWORK Workshop Page 213 8.3 Refining Co-design Strategy and Resources for Archaeology Page 222 8.3.1 Design Activities Structure Page 222 8.3.2 Design Tools Page 226 8.3.2.1 Design Cards Page 227 8.3.2.2 Empathy Map and Matrix Framework Page 232 8.4 Summary Page 235 9 Conclusion Page 236 9.1 Overview of Chapter Conclusions Page 236 6 9.2 Future Research Directions Page 240 9.3 Final Conclusion Page 245 Appendix A Page 250 Appendix B Page 263 Appendix C Page 366 Appendix D Page 425 Appendix E Page 495 Appendix F Page 534 Appendix G Page 629 Glossary Page 662 Bibliography Page 664 7 List of Tables Table 4.1: Interview and focus groups with the Erimi research team. List of participants. Page 102 Table 4.2: Interview with digital heritage practitioners and museum curators. List of participants. Page 105 Table 4.3: Pilot workshop. List of participants Page 114 Table 4.4: ARKWORK workshop. List of participants. Page 115 Table 5.1: Survey results. Users’ response to Question 6. Page 132 Table 5.2: Survey results. Users’ response to Question 7. Page 132 Table 5.3: Survey results. Users’ response to Question 8. Page 133 Table 5.4: Survey results. Users’ response to Question 9. Page 133 Table 5.5: Survey results. Users’ response to Question 10. Page 134 Table 5.6: Survey results. Users’ response to Question 11. Page 134 Table 5.7: Survey results. Users’ response to Question 12. Page 135 Table 5.8: Survey results. Users’ response to Question 13. Page 135 Table 5.9: Survey results. Users’ response to Question 14. Page 136 Table 5.10: Survey results. Users’ response to Question 15. Page 136 Table 5.11: Survey results. Users’ response to Question 16. Page 137 Table 5.12: Survey results. Users’ response to Question 17. Page 138 Table 5. 13: Survey results. Users’ response to Question 19. Page 139 Table 5.14: Survey results. Experts’ responses to Question 21. Page 141 Table 5.15: Survey results. Non-experts’ responses to Question 21. Page 142 Table 5.16: Survey results. Students’ responses to Question 21. Page 143 Table 7.1: Pilot workshop activities structure Page 168 Table 7.2: ARKWORK workshop activities structure Page 184 Table 8.1: ARKWORK workshop follow-up interviews. List of participants Page 214 8 List of Figures Figure 1.1: The Kouris River Area and the settlement of Erimi- Laonin tou Porakou. Page 26 Figure 1.2: The Middle Bronze Age settlement of Erimi-Laonin tou Porakou. Page 27 Figure 1.3: Select images from the ARKWORK workshop. Page 30 Figure 1.4: Diagrams illustrating the sequence of activities conducted for each design iteration of the research project. Pages 32-33 Figure 2.1: Çatalhöyük Shrine of The Hunters. Page 50 Figure 2.2: The sequence of the excavation process recorded in Uppåkra. Page 51 Figure 2.3: 3D GIS platform developed for Kämpinge. Page 52 Figure 2.4: Gabii project digital platform interface. Page 53 Figure 2.5: A view of Rome from the air within Rome Reborn.