The Lost Gallery: John Garstang and Turkey – A Postcolonial Reading Volume 1 of 2 Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Françoise P Rutland June 2014 Table of contents iii List of tables viii List of abbreviations ix Context and acknowledgments xi Introduction xiv Bibliography (Volume Two) 415 ii Table of contents Introduction xiv Chapter One: John Garstang as agent of Edwardian British Empire 1 1.1: Autochthonous perceptions of empire 1 1.2: The blueprint of British imperial knowledge collection 3 1.3: Garstang’s social context within the empire 4 1.4: Garstang's networks: – Oxford-London-Egypt-Turkey-Sudan 8 1.5: Garstang’s Near Eastern network 8 1.6: Garstang’s Liverpool network 13 1.7: A family affair – Garstang’s personal Edwardian colonial network 20 1.8: Knowledge is power 22 1.9: Resourcefulness of a British colonial archaeologist 26 1.10: Photography as a portrait of the Edwardian colonial method 31 1.11: Conclusion 36 Chapter Two: Archaeologists as agents of Empire abroad 40 2.1: In the 20th century – Istanbul 40 2.2: Western influence in Turkish museums 43 2.3: Western archaeologists in 'Oriental' Turkey 46 2.4: Garstang’s support network in Istanbul 51 2.5: Sakçagözü and Osman Hamdi Bey 57 2.6: A Palestinian interlude 64 2.7: Mersin – a last excavation site in collaboration with America 69 iii 2.8: Conclusion 76 Chapter Three: Museums as ontological praxis of colonialism and nationalism 78 3.1: The Liverpool Public Museum 79 3.2: Social perceptions of the architecture at Liverpool’s cultural centre, 1853-1931 81 3.3: Public art as social metamorphosis for the middle classes 88 3.4: Hellenic Classicism for British cultural and social demographic delineation 92 3.5: Classical Hellenism as cultural ideal of British Empire 93 3.6: Collecting and displaying as a symptom of colonialism in Europe 94 3.7: The British Museum as metropolitan vehicle of Empire 96 3.8: The 20th century social context 97 3.9: Classical Hellenic identity in 19th century Liverpool 100 3.10: The socio-economic stratification of the city of Liverpool, 1930s 102 3.11: The University of Liverpool as an Edwardian middle class institution 105 3.12: Conclusion 108 Chapter Four: A reading of the ‘lost’ Hittite Gallery, Liverpool Public Museum, 1931-41 110 4.1: The Liverpool Public Museum galleries over three floors 111 4.2: A postcolonial critique of the demographic context of the Liverpool Public Museum, 1930s 114 4.3a: The 'Egyptian Archaeology' gallery 116 iv 4.3b: The 'Aegean and Hittite Collections' gallery 118 4.3c: The 'British Archaeology' gallery 121 4.3d: The 'Shipping', 'Liverpool Pottery' and 'Old Liverpool' galleries 122 4.3e: The 'British Zoology' gallery 124 4.3f: A postcolonial interpretation of visitors’ reception at the entrance floor 123 4.3g: The lower floor galleries 126 4.3h: The upper floor galleries 126 4.3i: The gallery of 'Economic Botany' 129 4.4: The Liverpool Public Museum as institution for education 130 4.5: Overview of origin of the ‘Garstang Hittite Collection' 134 4.6: The Hittite casts collection as presented by the 'Aegean and Hittite Collections' gallery guidebook 136 4.7: Sir Leonard Woolley’s Deve Hüyük 1913 contributions 139 4.8: Dynamics between museum and university 144 4.9: The Liverpool museum staff as implementers of imperial rhetoric 145 4.9a: Biblical references within the 'Hittite Collection' gallery 146 4.9b: The curator’s view of the ‘Hittite Collection’ 147 4.10: A postcolonial reading of the 1930s Neo-Hittite artistic evolution – the view of two curators 150 4.10a: Vaughan's artistic interpretation 150 4.10b: Tankard's artistic interpretation 151 4.11: May 1941 – Liverpool blitz destruction 154 4.12: Conclusion 157 Chapter Five: Renegotiations of Hittite heritage in Turkey, 1900-1947 159 5.1: A European-Kemâlist nationalistic political reformation process 162 v 5.2: A unified Turkish history as demarcated by Western academics 167 5.3: Atatürk’s interpretation of Western republican democracy 169 5.4: Turkey between West and East 172 5.5: Kemâlist politics on the home front 175 5.6: Kemâlist colonialism through history, language, and education 176 5.7: Archaeological practice in Turkey 180 5.8: The Anıtkabir and the application of Hittite symbolism in politicised state architecture 183 5.9: European nationalistic blueprint of early Turkish museums 191 5.10: First Kemâlist director of the Imperial Ottoman Museums: Halil Edhem Bey (1861–1938) 193 5.11: Postcolonial interpretation of the role of archaeology in the westernisation of Turkey 194 5.12: Conclusion - John Garstang and Hittite archaeology in Turkey 198 Chapter Six: The 'Garstang Hittite Collection' – a science-based enquiry 200 6.1: Provenance of the ‘Garstang Hittite Collection’ 202 6.2: Select metal artefacts: metallurgical compositions of the ‘Garstang Hittite Collection’ 203 6.3: Historical background – early metallurgy in the Near East 205 6.4: Available metal sources in the Hittite Empire 207 6.4a: Sources of copper 207 6.4b: Sources of zinc 210 vi 6.4c: Sources of silver 211 6.4d: Sources of tin 213 6.5: Production of tinned copper alloys 215 6.6: Production of leaded copper alloys 216 6.7: Evidence for alloying and use of arsenical copper in the Near East and Egypt 217 6.8: Neo-Hittite metal production sites in the Carchemish region 221 6.9: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) metal composition analysis of selected ‘Garstang Hittite Collection’ artefacts 222 6.10: SEM results and interpretations 224 6.11: Two artefacts from the ‘Garstang Hittite Collection’ reflecting upon Edwardian collecting methodologies in the Near East 228 6.11a: Case study 1: interpreting a 14-sided bronze die through combined 3-D laser scanning and SEM analysis 229 6.11b: Cast study 2: a Neo-Hittite stone mould - using 3-D laser scanning and resin reproductions 234 6.12: Conclusion 241 Chapter Seven: General Conclusions 244 7.1: Discussion 246 vii List of tables Table 6.1: Presenting tin and arsenical contents of metals from various NE 219 Table 6.2: Content of metal components in percentage for each case study with allocated date 224 Table 6.3: Metal composition of 49.47.151 225 Table 6.4: Metal composition of 49.47.170 226 Table 6.5: Metal composition of 49.47.235 227 Table 6.6: Metal composition of 49.47.203 234 viii List of abbreviations 3D-LS 3-dimensional Laser Scanning ACE School of Archaeology, Classics and Egyptology, University of Liverpool AHRC Arts and Humanities Research Council, United Kingdom AIA Archaeological Institute of America AOS American Oriental Society ASOR American School of Oriental Research BA Bronze Age BIAA British Institute (of Archaeology) at Ankara BM British Museum, London BSAJ British School of Archaeology at Jerusalem DO-G Deutsche Orient-Geselleschaft (German Oriental Institute) EBA Early Bronze Age EBAF L’Ecole Biblique et Archéologique Française EMB Empire Marketing Board GM Garstang Museum IA Iron Age IoA Institute of Archaeology (Liverpool) LAAA Liverpool Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology Journal LCMC Liverpool City Museums Committee NML National Museums Liverpool PAM Palestine Archaeological Museum ix PEF The Palestine Exploration Fund POS Palestine Oriental Society PRP People’s Republican Party (ALSO CHP: Cumhüriyet Halk Partisi) SEM Scanning electron microscopy SC Special Collections UCL University College London UoL University of Liverpool VandA Victoria and Albert Museum, London WM World Museum, National Museums Liverpool x Context and acknowledgments Thesis research context This thesis represents the written output of a funded Collaborative Doctoral Research project awarded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) in 2008. It was supported by the University of Liverpool (UoL) and National Museums Liverpool (NML). The practical aspect involved full curatorial training, experience and support provided by NML through the Antiquities department at the World Museum (WM). This involved researching the remaining ‘Garstang Hittite Collection’, which NML owns, and related archival material with the view to provide fuller contextual and archaeological information for each artefact. It was then processed digitally through NML’s database system, MIMSY XG. This process involved the professional photographing of each element as provided by John Robert Peterson. The practical aspect of this research provided the great opportunity to work with Annemarie La Pensée at the National Conservation Centre in 2009, on methods of non-contact 3-dimensional laser scanning and reproduction for the purpose of authentication. The results were presented at the British Museum and at the University of London the following year. Complementary curatorial training involved completing the NML Collections Management Program (2010-11) which comprehensively covered practical and theoretical requirements of being a curator within a national museum in Britain. I was kindly permitted to shadowed curator Linda Pittwood at the Walker Art Gallery during the process of installation of the British Museum touring exhibition ‘High Kicks and Low Life Toulouse-Lautrec Prints’ in 2010. This experience was followed by a research post as part of the team led by Alan M. Greaves for the exhibition ‘The Hittites are Coming!’ at the Victoria Gallery and Museum (UoL), funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund. This features artefacts from the ‘Garstang Hittite Collection’, and from the British Museum, as well as a portrayal of his career as an archaeologist in Liverpool. A separate project which digitised John Garstang’s photograph and slide archives (Garstang Museum, UoL) made up another aspect of this exhibition. xi Personal acknowledgements Primarily I am immensely grateful to my supervisor Alan Greaves, who provided unstinting positive support, encouragement, and opportunities to develop academically at every step of the way.