Transforming Earth and Fire: New Narratives of Identity and Place in the Northern Ireland Peace Process Lia Dong Shimada Department of Geography University College London Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University College London, 2010 2 Declaration of Original Work I, Lia Dong Shimada, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. Lia Dong Shimada 9 July 2010 3 Abstract This thesis explores the cultural geographies of peacebuilding through a study of Belfast, Northern Ireland. I investigate the connections between transformations of contested landscapes, shifting meanings of place, and new narratives of identity and belonging emerging through the Northern Ireland peace process. The aims of my research serve two theoretical objectives: first, to examine how transformations of contested cultural landscapes provoke new perceptions of place and geographic scale; and second, to examine how these transformations shape the expression, creation and negotiation of identity in societies emerging from violent conflict. For this project, I have developed a collaborative, qualitative methodological approach that combines semi-structured interviews and participant observation. I ground my research in case studies of two contested landscapes, both of which bear symbolic and material weight from Northern Ireland’s thirty-year civil war. The first case study explores republican cultural identities in relation to Divis Mountain, the highest point in Belfast, as it transitions from a British military base to a public recreational resource. The second case study focuses on peacetime transformations of the contentious 11th Night bonfire tradition and their implications for shifting expressions of loyalist cultural identity. Crucially, I cross-cut these case studies with a third strand of inquiry that explores transformations of contested landscapes in relation to identities and ideas of belonging among Northern Ireland’s growing minority ethnic populations. I position this project as a challenge to existing models of analysis for Northern Ireland. By opening the dominant Protestant-Catholic binary to explore the less-studied perspectives of ethnic minorities, I highlight the diversity of cultural identities emerging in post-ceasefire Belfast. I argue that practice in and scholarship on Northern Ireland must expand beyond traditional, binary conceptualizations of sectarian conflict to acknowledge how diverse relationships, identities and communities are vital to the process of building peace. 4 Table of Contents Statement of Original Work 2 Abstract 3 Table of Contents 4 List of Figures 7 List of Tables 8 List of Acronyms 9 Acknowledgements 10 Chapter One Introduction: The Place of Peacebuilding Overview 11 1. Research Objectives and Approach 12 2. Structure of the Thesis 13 Conclusion 17 Chapter Two Literature Review and Theoretical Framework Introduction 19 1. Theorizing Peace 21 2. Conflict Transformation and Cultural Geography 26 3. Contested Landscapes 29 4. The Challenge of Shared Heritage 35 5. New Places, New Identities, New Possibilities 38 Conclusion 42 Chapter Three Northern Ireland: A Case Study for Conflict Transformation Introduction 45 1. Historical Overview 47 2. ‘Post-Conflict’ Belfast 51 3. Placing Identity 55 4. Dilemmas of Heritage and History 59 5. Ethnic Minorities: A New Social Landscape 64 6. Rhetoric versus Reality: Putting Peace into Practice 68 Conclusion 71 5 Chapter Four Research Strategy and Design Introduction 75 1. Feminist and Participatory Research Debates 77 2. Research Methods, or ‘Ways of Asking’ 79 3. Research Strategy 82 4. Case Study: 11th Night Bonfires 86 Strand 1: Loyalist Perspectives 87 Strand 2: Minority Ethnic Perspectives 89 5. Case Study: Divis Mountain 90 Strand 1: Republican Perspectives 91 Strand 2: Minority Ethnic Perspectives 93 6. Positionality 93 Conclusion 97 Chapter Five Transforming Earth: Divis Mountain and Republican Identities Introduction 104 1. Imperial Legacies 108 The Ordnance Survey 108 Military Geographies 110 2. Republican Landscapes 112 The Romance of Resistance 112 The Fort and the Herald 119 3. Inscribing Identity 124 (Re)naming Places 124 An Activist Alphabet 130 Conclusion 135 Chapter Six Transforming Fire: 11th Night Bonfires and Loyalist Identities Introduction 146 1. ‘Loyalism in Transition’: Fire, History and Heritage 150 A Brief History 150 Building and Burning 152 Contested Landscape; Divisive Tradition 155 2. Transformations: Negotiating Change 160 Belfast: Piloting Progress 162 Antrim: The Changing Place of Paramilitarism 171 Woodvale: From Bonfire to Beacon 182 Conclusion 194 6 Chapter Seven Diversity in a Divided City: Ethnic Minorities and New Narratives of Belonging Introduction 202 1. Divis Mountain 206 Divergent Perspectives: Breaking Down Barriers 206 Scales of Belonging 209 2. 11th Night Bonfires 213 (In)visible Identities 215 ‘Flying the Flags of Fear’ 220 Bonfires and Belonging 223 Conclusion 230 Chapter Eight Conclusion: New Narratives of Identity and Place Introduction 234 1. Summary of Key Findings 236 2. Contributions to Academic Scholarship 241 3. Contributions to Policy and Practice 244 4. Reflections on the Roles of the Researcher 246 Coda 249 References 251 Appendix 1: Sample interview questions (Divis – Ethnic Minorities) 271 Appendix 2: Sample interview questions (Bonfires – Ethnic Minorities) 272 7 List of Figures 3.1 Peaceline at Springmartin, West Belfast 73 3.2 Entrance to loyalist enclave, North Belfast 73 3.3 Republican mural, Falls, West Belfast 74 3.4 Loyalist mural, Mount Vernon estate, North Belfast 74 4.1 Panels from Bonfire Management Programme exhibit 101 5.1 West Belfast with Divis Mountain in the background 139 5.2 Ordnance Survey theodolite base on Black Mountain 139 5.3 Ministry of Defense compound on Divis 140 5.4 Eco-grid trail leading to Black Mountain 140 5.5 Derelict 18th century stone barn, eventual site of visitor’s centre 141 5.6 Concrete imprint of Ministry of Defense compound 141 5.7 Herald of Jericho sculpture 142 5.8 Fort Whiterock, known locally as Fort Jericho 142 5.9 National Trust entrance sign 143 5.10 Christoff Gillen with a white sheet 143 5.11 Question mark on Black Mountain 144 5.12 The letter ‘H’ on Black Mountain 144 5.13 ‘NO BUSH’ on Black Mountain 145 6.1 11th Night bonfire 198 6.2 Bonfire under construction 198 6.3 Bonfire with Irish Tricolour and posters of republican politicians 199 6.4 Burning bonfire 199 6.5 Aftermath of a bonfire 200 6.6 Anti-gentrification graffiti on the Shankill Road, West Belfast 200 6.7 Bonfire designed as a castle 201 6.8 Trial burning of the beacon 201 7.1 Members of the Afro-Caribbean Society on Divis Mountain 232 7.2 View of Belfast from Divis 232 7.3 Racist sign posted on the Shankill Road, West Belfast 233 8 List of Tables 4.1 Bonfire discussions in loyalist communities 100 4.2 Individual bonfire interviews 100 4.3 Bonfire interviews with minority ethnic community groups 102 4.4 Interviews and discussions for Divis Mountain case study, Strand 1 103 4.5 Walking tours of Divis and discussions with minority ethnic 103 community groups 9 List of Acronyms ACSONI Afro-Caribbean Society of Northern Ireland IRA Irish Republican Army MOD Ministry of Defense UDA Ulster Defense Association UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UVF Ulster Volunteer Force 10 Acknowledgements To my remarkable advisor, Dr Claire Dwyer, I give wholehearted thanks for her guidance, encouragement and support. I feel fortunate to have worked with a mentor who has challenged and sustained me in equal measures, and who gave me wide latitude to develop this piece of scholarship in creative, collaborative ways. My doctoral studies were made possible through grants from the US National Science Foundation (Graduate Research Fellowship Program), the Overseas Research Students Award Scheme, and Wellesley College (Horton-Hallowell Fellowship). I have benefited enormously from the stimulating intellectual community of the Department of Geography at University College London. During my time in Northern Ireland, Queen’s University Belfast kindly gave me an academic base; I am grateful to Nuala Johnson and Brendan Murtagh for arranging formal affiliations with their departments. As my research took shape in Belfast, I was assisted by more people than I can count. Particular thanks to Sylvia Gordon and the staff at Groundwork Northern Ireland; Dermot McCann and Heather Smith from The National Trust; the Minority Ethnic and Faith Network; Jim Bradley, Belfast Hills Partnership; Christoff Gillen; Terry and Feargal Enright; the West Belfast Taxi Association; Deirdre Mackel, Upper Springfield Development Trust; Bill McComb, Upper Springfield Integrated Youth Services; Jim McKinley, Donegall Pass Community Forum; and Norman Watson and David Robinson, Belfast City Council. Above all, I thank my research participants, who gave generously of their time and stories. I have been fortunate to cultivate a rich life on both sides of the Irish Sea. In Belfast, I am grateful for the friendships of Mark and Anne Johnston, Henri Mohammed, John Eltham, Eva McDermott, my fellow Quire singers, and No Alibis bookstore. In London, I owe my sanity to the London Orpheus Choir, the community of St James’s Piccadilly, and the harpsichords at Fenton House. Special thanks to Diane Horn for providing a second home filled with food, books