Making Mongols: Representations of Culture, Identity, and Resistance Jamie N. Sanchez Dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Alliance for Social, Political, Ethical, and Cultural Thought François Debrix, Chair Aaron Ansell Rohan Kalyan Helen Schneider May 2, 2016 Blacksburg, VA Keywords: material culture, resistance identity China, Mongols, ethnopolitics, Inner Mongolia Copyright Jamie N. Sanchez (2016) Making Mongols: Representations of Culture, Identity, and Resistance Jamie N. Sanchez ABSTRACT (academic) Mongols in Northern China fear the end of a distinct cultural identity. Until the late 19th century, cultural differences between Mongols and Han could be seen through differences in each group’s traditional way of life. Mongols were nomadic pastoralists. Han were sedentary farmers. Recent economic development, rapid urbanization, and assimilation policies have threatened Mongolian cultural identity. In response to this cultural identity anxiety, Mongols in Inner Mongolia have looked for ways to express their distinct cultural identity. This dissertation analyzes three case studies derived from material cultural productions that represent Mongolian cultural identity. These include pastoralism, the use of Genghis Khan, and the Mongolian language. The analyses of different material cultural artifacts and the application of cultural and political theory come together in this dissertation to demonstrate how Mongolian cultural identity is reimagined through representation. In this dissertation, I also demonstrate how these reimagined identities construct and maintain ethnic boundaries which prevent the total absorption of a distinct Mongolian identity in China. Making Mongols: Representations of Culture, Identity, and Resistance Jamie N. Sanchez ABSTRACT (public) Mongols in Northern China fear the end of a distinct cultural identity. Until the late 19th century, cultural differences between Mongols and Han could be seen through differences in each group’s traditional way of life. Mongols were shepherds that moved from place to place with their herds of sheep. Han were sedentary farmers. Recent economic development, rapid urbanization, and assimilation policies have threatened Mongolian cultural identity. In response to this cultural identity anxiety, Mongols in Inner Mongolia have looked for ways to express their distinct cultural identity. This dissertation analyzes three case studies derived from material cultural productions that represent Mongolian cultural identity. These include pastoralism, the use of Genghis Khan, and language. The analyses of different material cultural artifacts and the application of cultural and political theory come together in this dissertation to demonstrate how Mongolian cultural identity is reimagined through representation. In this dissertation, I also demonstrate how these reimagined identities construct and maintain ethnic boundaries which prevent the total absorption of a distinct Mongolian identity in China. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I have many people to thank for their invaluable contributions to this project. I would like to express my deepest appreciation to François Debrix for his mentorship to me as a student in the ASPECT program. You have provided rich and challenging guidance since I began this journey. Additionally, I am grateful for his expertise and generous guidance throughout the research, writing, and editing process. Thank you for nudging me past my intellectual limits. Thank you to Aaron Ansell for first introducing me to the study of material culture. I have enjoyed the rich discussions about qualitative research and appreciate your constant affirmation of my budding ideas. Thank you to Rohan Kalyan for the recommendations of sources and ideas of how to approach my work. Your guidance about how to think about the topic of language and resistance helped me push forward. Thank you to Helen Schneider for her expertise in the field of China studies. Thank you for generously connecting me to other academics in this field. Thank you, also, for the robust feedback on this dissertation that has made my work richer. I am indebted to Tamara Sutphin for answering unending questions about processes and deadlines. Thank you, also, for the reminder to go outside, take walks, and reflect. I am incredibly thankful for Christian Matheis who has patiently mentored me from the day I began my PhD career. Your generosity, availability, and assurance have been invaluable. Thank you to all of my ASPECT colleagues who have supported, celebrated, and challenged me. Thank you to Francine, Katie, and Sascha. I have enjoyed working alongside you for the past four years. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my friends and family who are outside of the PhD world. Thank you for making me take time off. Thank you for providing safe spaces for me to relax. Thank you for listening to my concerns, frustrations, hopes, and aspirations. When I was overwhelmed, you responded with abundant encouragement. Your friendships enrich my life. "iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................... iv LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................. viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...................................................................................... ix PREFACE.................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 3 Geographical Context: Inner Mongolia................................................................ 3 Problem Statement............................................................................................... 5 Scope and Limitations........................................................................................... 7 Spelling and Transliteration................................................................................... 9 Terms, Concepts, and Ideologies.......................................................................... 9 Cultural Identity Anxiety ................................................................................10 Inner Mongolia............................................................................................... 10 Outer Mongolia.............................................................................................. 10 Mongolian and Mongol.................................................................................. 11 Minzu............................................................................................................. 11 Hanzu and Han.............................................................................................. 13 Barbarian....................................................................................................... 15 Hexie Shehui................................................................................................. 16 Collaboration................................................................................................. 16 Minzu Tuanjie and Minzu Fenlie.................................................................... 17 Ethnic Classification Project................................................................................ 18 Theory and Literature Review............................................................................. 20 Material Culture as a Framework of Analysis...................................................... 28 Methods: Case Studies of Material Culture....................................................... 29 Organization of the Project................................................................................. 30 References.......................................................................................................... 34 CHAPTER TWO Tumultuous Times: Shifts in Inner Mongolia from 1947-Present..................... 38 Assimilation: Hanification and the End of Pastoralism....................................... 40 Genghis Khan or Genghis Han?......................................................................... 53 Modernization through Mandarin, not Mongolian ..............................................59 "v Conclusion: Between Real and Imagined Representations of Cultural Identity. 69 References.......................................................................................................... 72 CHAPTER THREE Protests in Inner Mongolia Since May 2011......................................................... 79 Ongoing Resistance: Mongol Protests in Inner Mongolia.................................. 79 Contemporary Protests in China......................................................................... 81 Unrest throughout China’s Borderlands.............................................................. 87 Mongol Resistance: The May 2011 Protests..................................................... 93 Constructed Social Meanings Through Place..................................................... 98 Protests Since May 2011: A Timeline............................................................... 101 Conclusion: Resistance Through Art, Performance, and Song........................ 107 References.......................................................................................................