Distant Proximity A comparative analysis of migrant netizen engagement before and during the Arab Spring Johanne Kübler Thesis submitted for assessment with a view to obtaining the degree of Doctor of Political and Social Sciences of the European University Institute Florence, May 2017 European University Institute Department of Political and Social Sciences Distant Proximity A comparative analysis of migrant netizen engagement before and during the Arab Spring Johanne Kübler Thesis submitted for assessment with a view to obtaining the degree of Doctor of Political and Social Sciences of the European University Institute Examining Board Prof. Hanspeter Kriesi, European University Institute (Supervisor) Prof. Olivier Roy, European University Institute Prof. Fiona B. Adamson, SOAS University of London Prof. Alexandra Segerberg, Stockholm University © Johanne Kübler, 2017 No part of this thesis may be copied, reproduced or transmitted without prior permission of the author Researcher declaration to accompany the submission of written work Department of Political and Social Sciences - Doctoral Programme I Johanne Kübler certify that I am the author of the work "Distant Proximity: A comparative analysis of migrant netizen engagement before and during the Arab Spring" I have presented for examination for the Ph.D. at the European University Institute. I also certify that this is solely my own original work, other than where I have clearly indicated, in this declaration and in the thesis, that it is the work of others. I warrant that I have obtained all the permissions required for using any material from other copyrighted publications. I certify that this work complies with the Code of Ethics in Academic Research issued by the European University Institute (IUE 332/2/10 (CA 297). The copyright of this work rests with its author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This work may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. This authorisation does not, to the best of my knowledge, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that this work consists of 72588 words. Statement of language correction: This thesis has been corrected for linguistic and stylistic errors. I certify that I have checked and approved all language corrections, and that these have not affected the content of this work. Signature and date: 12.4.2017 ABSTRACT The spread of the internet and migration are key dimensions associated with glob- alization and range among the most salient challenges of our times. Looking at the intersection of these two phenomena, this dissertation explores how the inter- net enables citizens of non-democracies living abroad to partake in the political discourse and online campaigns in their home countries. How does the fact of living in non-authoritarian countries affect the migrant’s position inside their on- line community? Using concepts from the contentious politics literature, I examine why migrant netizens adopt different roles in online campaigns in the years lead- ing to and during the Arab uprisings at the examples of Tunisia and Morocco. I draw upon multiple empirical strategies including an analysis of web crawls of the Tunisian and Moroccan blogospheres, in-depth interviews with a number of key actors and frame analysis. I find that migrants were among the pioneers of political blogging, are well-integrated in their respective blogosphere and often occupy central positions. Political opportunity structures matter, thus the relative absence of repression allows migrants to act as radical mobilizers in highly repres- sive regimes like Tunisia. In contrast to that, migrant netizens in slightly more liberal settings like Morocco are less of a driving force than an equal partner in online discussions and campaigns, even if they might provide additional resources and establish contacts with international actors. Finally, the frame analysis reveals that radical migrant bloggers are likely to suffer from a lack of credibility due to their relative immunity to repression, unless they adapt their frames to the con- cerns of the wider blogger community, thereby enabling the creation of a broad coalition. 6 The Web does not just connect machines, it connects people. — Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It takes a village to write a dissertation, and there are many people who have, over the years, helped me along the way. However, finishing this project would have been impossible without the guidance and support I received from my supervi- sor, Professor Hanspeter Kriesi. I am greatly indebted to him for his mentorship, for his invaluable help to structure my thoughts and for his patience along these years. I am greatly honoured that Professor Fiona B. Adamson, Professor Alexan- dra Segerberg, and Professor Olivier Roy agreed to serve in my jury. I thank them for taking the time to read my work and for their insightful and constructive com- ments. I also want to thank my colleagues of the Borderlands Project for the one and a half years we spent together at the Robert Schuman Centre. I want to thank Professor Raffaella A. Del Sarto for giving me the opportunity to work for an impressive project, and for her advice and encouragement to keep going. Asli, Ylenia,´ Jonathan, Simone, Mohamed and Jean-Pierre, thank you for the great time we had together. We shall miss our tiny office dearly in the Villino. The European University Institute is probably one of the best places to do a PhD. What makes the EUI great is the fascinating and often inspiring people passing through. I am so happy to have met Andrea and Rebecca, as well as Simon, Chiara, Parthena, Daniela, Leonidas and many others who made these years in Italy an unforgettable period in my life. I am grateful to Maureen Lechleitner and Gabriella Unger for running the SPS department so smoothly, ensuring that one generation of researchers after another makes it over the finish line, all the while keeping a clear head. I also thank the friendly and helpful staff of the EUI for making everything easier for all the researchers. It’s the small things, like remembering which coffee you drink after lunch, which makes us researchers feel at home. When I moved to Florence in 2011, I did not realize that I would soon meet some- one very special. In Hugo, I found a beautiful mind, a passionate eater and cook, and an insatiable sparring partner for bouncing off ideas. I am endlessly grateful to have him at my side, bringing with him so many moments of incredible joy and laughter and scolding me whenever I thought that this thesis would vanquish me. Meeting Hugo was without doubt the best that happened to me. 8 9 Finally, I want to thank my father, who has always supported me and without whom I would not be where I am today. I know it is not easy to have a child that is all wings and no roots, so... thank you for letting me fly. CONTENTS 1 introduction 14 i theory and methodology 20 2 theoriesandconcepts 21 2.1 Migrant netizens 22 2.2 Contentious politics 25 2.3 Digitally enabled diaspora activism 37 2.4 Investigating online activism power structures 40 2.5 Conclusion 50 3 methodology 51 3.1 Methodology 51 3.2 Methods and data analysis 52 3.3 Case selection 59 3.4 Conclusion 69 ii empirical results 70 4 mappingtheblogosphere 71 4.1 A brief history of Tunisian and Moroccan migrant activism 72 4.2 Analysing web crawls 79 4.3 Conclusion 101 5 political opportunities and strategic choices 103 5.1 A free space in authoritarian contexts 103 5.2 Light-handed control vs. suffocating online repression 110 5.3 Conclusion 123 6 collective identity 125 6.1 Collective identity and internet activism 126 6.2 Complex modern transnational identities 129 6.3 Developing a collective identity 134 6.4 Conclusion 150 7 conclusion 152 7.1 Findings 152 7.2 Broader implications 155 7.3 Limitations and avenues for future research 158 10 Contents 11 a appendix 181 a.1 Web crawls 181 a.2 Interviews and personal correspondence 191 a.3 Interview guidelines for semi-structured interviews 193 LISTOFFIGURES Figure 1 Modes of suppression (Boykoff 2007) 30 Figure 2 Number of Moroccans abroad 65 Figure 3 Number of Tunisians abroad 66 Figure 4 Tunisian e-diaspora in 2011, light nodes located abroad, dark in Tunisia (based on Graziano, 2011) 82 Figure 5 Moroccan e-diaspora in 2010, light nodes located abroad, dark in Morocco (based on Diminescu and Renault, 2010) 90 Figure 6 Rerun Moroccan e-diaspora in 2011, light nodes located abroad, dark in Morocco (based on Diminescu and Renault, 2011) 91 Figure 7 Moroccan e-diaspora in 2010, light nodes located abroad, dark in Morocco (based on Diminescu and Renault, 2010) 93 Figure 8 Strategic decisions 107 Figure 9 Roles varying according to location 109 12 LISTOFTABLES Table 1 Descriptive statistics 81 Table 2 Most important nodes - Tunisia 2011 84 Table 3 Descriptive statistics 88 Table 4 Most important nodes - Morocco May 2010 89 Table 5 Most important nodes - Morocco July 2011 94 Table 6 Attributes 97 Table 7 Dependent Variable: In-degree 99 Table 8 Complete list of nodes, Tunisia 182 Table 9 Complete list of nodes, Morocco 187 13 1 INTRODUCTION Whether one considers the impact of the invention of the printing press on the politico-religious movement of reformation, the radio on the spread of propaganda in Nazi Germany or the first-ever televised presidential debates on the election of J. F. Kennedy - technological developments in the communication sector have fu- eled debates on the effect they have on society and their prospects as instruments of democracy (e.g. Dunham, 1938; Lerner, 1958).