EXAMINING FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO COLLEGE READINESS AND SUCCESS IN AMERICAN SAMOA USING MULTILEVEL LOGISTIC MODELING A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAIʻI AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY DECEMBER 2018 By Spencer Paula Fusitoutai Scanlan Dissertation Committee: Seongah Im, Chairperson Katherine Ratliffe Ronald Heck Linda Venenciano Linda Furuto Keywords: College readiness, American Samoa, Multilevel ordinal logistic regression, cross- classified multilevel binary logistic regression ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This effort would not have been possible without the support and assistance from close friends and colleagues whom I have had the privilege to get to know and work with over the years. I am deeply grateful for the leaders and staff members at the American Samoa Department of Education (ASDOE) and the American Samoa Community College (ASCC) for their continued support throughout my research study. I express my gratitude to Vaitinasa Dr. Salu- Hunkin Finau, Dr. Ruth Matagi-Tofiga and Mr. Marty Mamea from ASDOE for supporting my research proposal and following up with me to make sure I am on track with my study. To Dr. Rosevonee Makaiwi Pato, Mr. Sonny Leomiti and Mr. Sione Ah Sam at ASCC– Thank you for your support and for your genuine interest in this research effort. You have all been courteous and welcoming in our correspondences. I look forward to contributing to ongoing school improvement efforts back home in American Samoa in any that way I can. I express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Seongah Im, for her knowledge, professionalism and graceful mentorship throughout my educational journey at UH Manoa. I am grateful for your commitment to excellence and success. Finally, I want to thank my family, both near and far, for rooting for me as I embarked on this journey back in 2012. I am grateful for my loving parents who instilled in me the importance of education. Mom and Dad – This is for you. To my in-laws, Susan and Hiagi Wesley - words are not enough to express my indebtedness to you for your willingness to support my education in so many ways – Thank you. I To my wife, Tialei, your constant support has been my anchor of hope through countless moments of discouragement and uncertainty. Thank you for your love, encouragement, and support. II ABSTRACT This study examined the extent to which student- and teacher-level characteristics in high school and college are associated empirically with high school students’ college readiness and success in American Samoa. More specifically, multilevel ordinal logistic regressions were employed to understand the extent to which these characteristics predict five distinct outcomes of college readiness and success. These outcome measures include grades in high school Algebra 2 and English 12 courses, initial English and math course enrollment in college, and earning a degree within three years of initial enrollment (a measure of college success). Results from the analyses revealed that high school grade point average was related with each of the five outcomes examined in this study. Grade 9 cumulative GPA was postively related with both high school Algebra 2 and English 12 course grades. SAT-10 performance was positively related with grades in Algebra 2 and English 12 courses while student absenteeism had a negative effect on each of the grades in Algebra 2 and English 12 courses. The relationship between SAT-10 performance and student absenteeism and grades in Algebra 2 and English 12 courses however, varied by high school cohorts. Additionally, teacher absenteeism was negatively related with students’ grades in Algebra 2 and English 12 courses. High school cumulative GPA, grade 12 SAT-10 Reading score and grade 12 absenteeism were associated with students’ initial enrollment in a college-level English course. In addition to high school cumulative GPA, attempting more rigorous math courses above Algebra 2 had a positive effect on enrolling directly into a college-level math course. The findings of this study offer local leaders in American Samoa empirical evidence to support efforts aimed at improving students’ college readiness and success. More specifically, III raising the academic preparation trajectory in high school and using high school data, including high school GPA, course taking, and test performance for placement decisions may help improve students’ transition from high school to college in American Samoa. IV Table of Contents Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................... I Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... III Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... V Tables ......................................................................................................................................... VIII Figures........................................................................................................................................... IX CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 College Readiness in American Samoa ...................................................................................... 2 CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................... 5 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 5 Background ................................................................................................................................. 5 Influences of Ecosystem on a student’s Experiences and Outcomes ......................................... 6 Macrosystem ........................................................................................................................... 8 Exosystem ............................................................................................................................. 16 Mesosystem........................................................................................................................... 21 Microsystem .......................................................................................................................... 23 College Readiness in the Pacific Region .................................................................................. 25 Structure of the remedial program ........................................................................................ 28 Availability of data for placement decisions ........................................................................ 30 Secondary education in American Samoa ............................................................................ 32 Remedial Program of American Samoa Community College .............................................. 33 Potential issues with the remedial program at ASCC ........................................................... 39 Measures of College Readiness ................................................................................................ 40 Measures of College Readiness ............................................................................................ 41 Predictors for College Readiness .......................................................................................... 44 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 47 CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................. 49 V METHOD ..................................................................................................................................... 49 Sample....................................................................................................................................... 49 Student-level data.................................................................................................................. 50 Teacher-level data ................................................................................................................. 50 Dependent and Independent Variables ..................................................................................... 50 Dependent variables .............................................................................................................. 51 Independent variables ........................................................................................................... 54 Analytic Strategy ...................................................................................................................... 58 CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................. 71 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................... 71 Research Question 1 ................................................................................................................