The dynamics of gender roles and cultural determinants of African women’s desire to participate in modern politics. Kwadwo A. Okrah, Ph.D. Indiana University South Bend Abstract Until recently the African woman was invisible in the modern political context. Even though the trend is changing, women remain marginal in active politics. One wonders if cultural and ideological interests that privilege male representations inform women’s non-participation in politics. Thus, the rise of women in African politics continues to struggle with patriarchal structures that seek to relegate them to the realm of only economic production and reproduction. st The 21 ​ century quest to liberate women in Africa stimulates a discussion that would ​ clarify the position of the modern African woman, among other things, in a challenging male bias society in the construction of an inclusive political system as well as rethinking and positioning women to fully participate in the governance of Africa. This paper seeks to explore the historical perspective and kindred factors that have consciously or inadvertently excluded African women in modern politics. Attempt would also be made to recapture women’s contributions to African traditional system of government and how those support systems could be transferred to modern political structure to advance appropriate and responsible governance for Africa. Introduction A striking question regarding lack of women’s participation in modern politics is whether or not the phenomenon is only an African problem. In the book Black Africa, Cheikh Anta Diop (1987) explains bicameralism as a type of governance some of our ancestors used to rule their people. Before Africa came under the dominance of any foreign powers, women had a position of influence in society. In African bicameralism women participated in the running of public affairs within the framework of a women’s assembly. This assembly sat separately to the man’s assembly but the two shared influence and power. The resistance against foreign invasion and occupation of West African nations such as Dahomey (Benin) and the Yorubas in Nigeria is said to be a result of the women’s assembly meeting at night. African bicameralism allowed the blossoming of both males and females and allowed the full use of both the feminine and masculine mind. Bicameralism is an ancient example of African democracy that put to full use the human resources of society in a manner that supported and encouraged everyone. Therefore let no one fool you that in traditional Africa, women were even worse off than they are now. The question is...what happened? And the simple answer is that, today, African women are dealing with systems that stifle, disrespect, abuse and even kill her... Foreign writers who only see the concentration of African women in subsistence, petty commodity production, and trading and, only tied to the domestic sphere of life have ignored the significant contribution of women in politics. However, one must understand the unique OkrahPage 1 socio-cultural setting of African to be able to understand the respect for social division of labor and the African arrangement of “social democracy”. The partition of African and the prevalence of myriads of ethnic groups make it difficult to negotiate for information because many Africans are regionally paranoid. Adams (2008) acknowledges that much of the scholarship on women in African politics has been rooted in case studies due to the dearth of empirical data on the subject. Essays on Africa topics in consequence, require a full anthropological and ethnographical account of the life and practices of detailed notes about Africans by Africans to produce autonomous account characterized by incarnation and indigenization rather than account born out of syncretism. Unfortunately, most of the literature on gender participation in African politics came from foreigners who might still be managing their cultural shock. Undeniably, Hesselgrave (1992) is right with his assertion that the awareness of a peoples’ worldview is prerequisite to contextualizing our message about them. The problems in Africa, which include illiteracy/ignorance, disease, lack of infrastructure and corruptions, have led to the failure of economic growth and development. People have lost faith in the political system where few men use their ill-gotten wealth in most cases to corrupt and criminalize the democratic process. One wonders if the inclusion of more women in African politics would ease the socio-economic ills prevalent in Africa and be able to make judicious use of the uncountable natural resources with which the continent is endowed. As stated by the International Parliamentary Union (2008) A strong and vibrant democracy is possible only when parliament is fully inclusive of the population it represents. Parliaments cannot consider themselves inclusive, however, until they can boast the full participation of women. Ever since the rst United Nations World Conference on Women was held in Mexico City in 1975, the international community has paid great attention to women’s representation in, and impact on, political decision-making structures. Despite this international focus, however, women’s access to parliament has been frustratingly slow and very often disappointing (2008, p.1). In addressing the topic of African women participation in politics key questions that need answers ​ include: What is the status of the representation of women in African parliaments and governments? What factors might deter women who are considering entering parliament or government What challenges do women parliamentarians face in being elected? What mechanisms are being introduced to achieve more gender balanced parliaments and women representation in governments? African women’s conversation about themselves: ​ In Ghana, only 1,376 representing 7.95 per cent of the 17,315 candidates contesting the 2010 ​ District Assembly Election were females as against 15,939 representing 92.05 males (GNA, 2010). In a dialogue on African Women in politics in Abuja, Nigeria, Pan-African News Wire ​ (2010) echoes Malam Kabiru A. Yusuf’s remark that “It is accepted by even the most obdurate male chauvinist that women are the natural partners of men in the home. But when it comes to their role in wider society, in the economy, politics, art and culture, many men are unwilling to concede [to] them their due. But society cannot progress unless all of us, men and women, young OkrahPage 2 and old, have equal chance to achieve our potential,” (PANW, 2010 p.1). Thus, African women st have a crucial role to play in Africa’s renaissance in the 21 ​ century. ​ I her contribution, Samia Nkrumah opines that Despite the fact that women make up 51 percent of Ghana’s population, this figure is not reflected at the decision making level. The cold fact however is that [women] have fallen short of the 30 percent representation stipulated by the United Nations that would make decision-making truly meaningful in any society. However, a throw back and current activities of women provides the indication that it is possible women can make a difference in the political front of Africa. Some African women who have made statements by their actions and positions include Queen Yaa Asantewaa of Ghana, Queen Amina of Zaria, Nigeria, [Nzinga Mbembe of Angola] and recent icons like Winnie Mandela of South Africa, Wangari Mathai of Kenya and Ellen Johnson Sirleaf of Liberia (PANW, 2010, p.1 In Winie Mandela’s assertion, Women should rise up to the challenge of their marginalization in male-dominated society by declaring that “Nothing about us without us” and proceed to swell the ranks of all social and political structures where the future of Mankind is discussed. Women have ​ ​ pivotal roles to play in shaping our regional and continental agenda. Women should not only be the backbone of our economies but also our politics. As we address our economic agenda we must also address women’s issues and their daily struggles to build a better life for all (PANW, 2010) In her contention, Senator Kofoworola Bucknor-Akerele, questions “Why women are hamstrung in politics? The former deputy governor of Lagos State claims that, women have in the last 50 years failed to achieve equality with men because the African society still believes that a woman still lacks the financial capability to run political campaign and political parties are dominated by men. She said men are reluctant to back women for elective positions and that women have been brainwashed into supporting men rather than their own gender. According to her, the African society still believes that women are better at domestic aspects and not good in governance. Women are also discouraged from politics by violence and thuggery (PANW, 2010). She said men dominate party office positions and women are marginalized in decision-making process in most of African countries. In few countries including South Africa some political parties have reserved some position to the women. “The African National Congress (ANC) of South Africa must be commended for acceptance of 50% of office positions for women in the party. Many other political parties in Africa only reserve few positions for women in their parties,” she said. Women marginalization in politics is obvious in Nigeria where parties have little or no positions reserved for women. An example is the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), which comprises 50 positions in the National Executive. Apart from the National Women Leader and 2 Deputies, only 2 ex-officio positions from the six geographical zones are reserved for women. She said in order to allow for more participation of African women in politics, countries must entrench in their constitutions some limitations to women representation. She said countries that have adopted quota system or affirmative actions have fared better than those that have not. “The first country to include a 20% quota representation in its constitution, Tanzania, has now OkrahPage 3 upgraded that to 30% in its constitution.