Illinois State University ISU ReD: Research and eData Theses and Dissertations 4-2-2017 (re)claiming History And Visibility Through Rhetorical Sovereignty: The Power Of Diné Rhetorics In The Works Of Laura Tohe Jessica Marie Safran Hoover Illinois State University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.library.illinoisstate.edu/etd Part of the American Literature Commons, Ethnic Studies Commons, and the Literature in English, North America Commons Recommended Citation Hoover, Jessica Marie Safran, "(re)claiming History And Visibility Through Rhetorical Sovereignty: The Power Of Diné Rhetorics In The Works Of Laura Tohe" (2017). Theses and Dissertations. 724. https://ir.library.illinoisstate.edu/etd/724 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by ISU ReD: Research and eData. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ISU ReD: Research and eData. For more information, please contact [email protected]. (RE)CLAIMING HISTORY AND VISIBILITY THROUGH RHETORICAL SOVEREIGNTY: THE POWER OF DINÉ RHETORICS IN THE WORKS OF LAURA TOHE Jessica Marie Safran Hoover 227 Pages This dissertation investigates the intricate intersections of code switching, trickster discourse and rhetorical sovereignty in the scholarship of Diné author Laura Tohe, as Tohe operationalizes survivance and alliance in complex ways, ways that “actuate a presence” in the face of ongoing attempts to render American Indian peoples absent from American rhetorical, literary, and geographic landscapes. Existing research in American Indian literatures and rhetorics often focus on the need for reclaiming rhetorical sovereignty. Yet, little work has been done to emphasize connections between the use of code switching, translation, and trickster discourse in order to give visibility to past and contemporary Diné peoples and to decolonize the Diné history. This dissertation uses decolonizing methodologies to demonstrate that Tohe’s writing is an action to regain the sovereignty and visibility that has been torn from the tongues and bodies of American Indian peoples, specifically the Diné, after years of colonization, oppression, and resistance. Chapter one provides the necessary historical context of the Diné and the Navajo Long Walk, and chapter two presents an explanation for the various theoretical and critical frameworks for this dissertation. Chapter three provides an explanation about the lens through which the visibility and voice of the Diné is exacted through Tohe’s use of rhetorics of survivance and alliance, as well as her attempt to decolonize the Diné history. Chapter four further explores Tohe’s decolonization of the Diné history and the reclamation of her rhetorical sovereignty through her use of trickster and trickster discourse, as she attempts to decolonize representations of the Diné and provide her own representation of what it means to be Diné. The dissertation ends with a reevaluation of the discussions surrounding the use of American Indian texts in an introductory American literature course. Chapter five guides educators in how using a text, such as Tohe’s, is beneficial to not only the promotion of American Indian texts in the classroom, but the necessity of disrupting, adding to, and maintaining our students’ acknowledgment, awareness, and understanding of the significance of rhetorical sovereignty and the power of those voices of American Indian authors in claiming that sovereignty and resisting colonial attempts to silence them. KEYWORDS: Rhetorical Sovereignty, Decolonize, Visibility, Diné, American Indian, Rhetorics, Literature, Language, Code Switching, Translation, Trickster Discourse (RE)CLAIMING HISTORY AND VISIBILITY THROUGH RHETORICAL SOVEREIGNTY: THE POWER OF DINÉ RHETORICS IN THE WORKS OF LAURA TOHE JESSICA MARIE SAFRAN HOOVER A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of English ILLINOIS STATE UNIVERSITY 2017 © 2017 Jessica Marie Safran Hoover (RE)CLAIMING HISTORY AND VISIBILITY THROUGH RHETORICAL SOVEREIGNTY: THE POWER OF DINÉ RHETORICS IN THE WORKS OF LAURA TOHE JESSICA MARIE SAFRAN HOOVER COMMITTEE MEMBERS: Christopher De Santis, Chair Angela Haas Kristin Dykstra ACKNOWLEDGMENTS No amount of praise and no number of words can truly convey my gratitude to the many people who helped me to write this dissertation and accomplish my dream of attaining a doctoral degree. I just hope that my dedication to my teacher-scholar duties and my motivation to help others to pursue their dreams can act as a “thank you” to those who inspired me to chase my dream and grab onto it with enthusiasm and pride. Many people have influenced my decision to pursue a doctoral degree, as they are and were my cheerleaders. I first want to thank Laura Tohe as she greatly influenced my research and academic career through her brilliant literary contributions and her influence to make the world a better and more-informed place. I also owe a great deal of gratitude to my dissertation committee members, Dr. Christopher De Santis, Dr. Kristin Dykstra, and Dr. Angela Haas. Each of these brilliant scholars gave up their time to help me compose and strengthen my research and writing. Dr. De Santis, you always encouraged me to be my best, as you challenged me to become a stronger writer and “own my words.” I thank you for supporting me in finishing this dissertation and finishing my degree. Dr. Dykstra, you were instrumental in helping me write with clarity and command, and you provided me with ample feedback while challenging me to think deeper. Lastly, Dr. Haas, thank you for your insights and your guidance. I would also like to acknowledge my parents, John and Antoinette Safran. I want to thank you two for raising me to strive for what I want, and teaching me what it means to “think for myself.” You two have always been two of my biggest supporters, and I am one of the luckiest “kids” in the world for having two loving and supportive parents who taught me never to give up regardless of any inevitable and unexpected obstacles. I also want to thank my grandmother, i Elizabeth Jobe. You always talked to me about my research and work, even though you “didn’t get it.” Thank you for being a listening ear. Most importantly, I want to recognize and thank my husband, Joseph Hoover. You have always been my light in a world that can be dark and my voice of reason during my bouts of anxiety and doubt. The strength that you give me in our day-to-day lives carried over into my work, as your encouragement and support helped me finish my dissertation and graduate with a degree that has taken us on many geographical journeys. You are the foundation from which I gain my confidence and inspiration. Thank you for being my best friend, life-partner, motivator, and fan. Lastly, I would like to remember those who are no longer with me in this tumultuous journey we call life: my grandfather Clifford Jobe, my grandfather Paul Safran, my great- grandmother Elizabeth Pilkington, my “in-law” grandparents Paul and Lillian Funsch, and my “adopted” grandmother and dear friend Mary Ann Stephens. Each of these people knew of my quest to earn a doctorate degree, and each of these people have influenced my life and my learning in a positive way; they are my cheerleaders from up above. J. M. S. H. ii CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i CONTENTS iii CHAPTER I: “SEEING WITH NAVAJO EYES”: UNDERSTANDING DINÉ HISTORY, CULTURE, AND DUAL IDENTITY 1 My Goal and Interest 6 Overview of Navajo Nation and Diné Culture and History 11 The Navajo Long Walk 13 Navajo Nation Today 21 Storytelling / Oral Traditions of the Navajo Nation 23 Background of Laura Tohe and Her Works 25 Dissertation Chapters 28 CHAPTER II: A DECOLONIZING FRAMEWORK AND THE NEED FOR A NATIONALIST PERSPECTIVE 32 My Research Methods 32 Decolonizing Methodologies 33 Sovereignty and Self-Determination 37 Cultural and Intellectual Sovereignty 42 Rhetorical Sovereignty 45 Rhetorics of Survivance 46 Rhetorics of Alliance 47 Defining Code Switching 48 iii Studies in Code Switching 51 Trickster 54 Nationalism 57 Literary Nationalism 58 Diné National Identity 61 CHAPTER III: (RE)CLAIMING DINÉ HISTORY AND GIVING VOICE TO SILENCED PAST AND PRESENT DINÉ: TACTICS OF SURVIVANCE AND ALLIANCE THROUGH CODE SWITCHING AND TRANSLATION IN LAURA TOHE’S TSÉYI’/ DEEP IN THE ROCK: REFLECTIONS ON CANYON DE CHELLY 66 Tséyi’/ Deep in the Rock 68 Diné Storytelling 70 Survivance 71 The Navajo Language 77 Past and Contemporary Diné Peoples’ Visibility and Voice 80 Stereotypes and Authenticity: Teaching Moments 92 Promoting Alliance: Teaching the Diné Language, Culture and History, and Encouraging Allies 93 CHAPTER IV: SUBVERTING ERASURE ATTEMPTS AND TRANSCENDING LIMITATIONS THROUGH TRICKSTER: (RE)WRITING HISTORY AND ATTAINING VOICE THROUGH TRICKSTER DISCOURSE AND THE COYOTESSE IN LAURA TOHE’S NO PAROLE TODAY 108 History of Boarding Schools 108 Tohe’s No Parole Today 117 iv Transcending Limitations Through the Many Embodiments of Trickster 118 Trickster Discourse and Rhetorics 121 Another Layer of Trickster: Understanding the Power of Coyotesse 124 Speaking Back to Pratt, Reclaiming Voice and Language 125 Trickster Fills the Silence 130 Trickster Breaks the Silence 133 Physical, “Real,” Tricksters 137 Tohe as Coyotesse, Again 141 Trickster Discourse: Speaking Back, Literally 143 Students or Tricksters: Shapeshifting and Survival 151 CHAPTER V: PEDAGOGICAL TOOLS TO BRING AWARENESS OF RHETORICAL SOVEREIGNTY IN AMERICAN