HISTORY TEACHERS’ EXPERIENCES OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ESWATINI (SWAZILAND) GENERAL CERTIFICATE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION (SGCSE) HISTORY CURRICULUM REJOICE KHANYISILE DLAMINI Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Ph.D. (DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY) History Education at UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU-NATAL School of Education SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR JOHAN WASSERMANN FEBRUARY 2019 ABSTRACT This study is a qualitative interpretive multiple case study. It aimed to investigate history teachers’ experiences of the implementation of the SGCSE history curriculum in eight senior secondary schools in the Manzini region in Eswatini. It further sought to understand why history teachers experienced the implementation of this curriculum the way they experienced it. Purposive sampling was used to select participants who helped generate data. The participants were selected based on their location and their involvement in the implementation of the SGCSE history curriculum as well as on the type of school in which they taught. Data was collected through the use of semi-structured interviews, group interviews and document analysis. Pinar’s (2004) curriculum theory and Gross, Giacquinta and Bernstein’s (1971) theory on implementation of educational change were used to theorise that since curriculum is a social construction, curriculum implementation should be a product of teacher reflection on his work. Teachers’ constant interaction with the learners positions teachers well in coming up with informed decisions on the best learning experiences and implementation strategies that can constitute the curriculum since they are familiar with both the learner and the school context. The findings revealed that the school context was not considered before rolling out the new curriculum. Schools were presumed to be the same yet they are not. It emerged from the data that some history teachers still had negative experiences of the implementation of this curriculum despite receiving training before the implementation process because of inadequate training and the lack of congruence between the teachers’ contextual factors and the reform. It also emerged that the country was severely constrained financially to change the school context. It also became clear from the study that history teachers need to be entrusted with the work of developing learning experiences and the means of transmitting these experiences to learners as they are better placed to do that since such an exercise would be informed by their knowledge of the learner and their contextual realities. i Key concepts: History, curriculum, Swaziland General Certificate of Secondary Education, curriculum implementation, history teachers, teachers’ experiences. ii DECLARATION I declare that this thesis is my own original work except where otherwise stated and that the thesis has not been submitted before for any degree or examination at any other University. Rejoice Khanyisile Dlamini As the student’s supervisor, I, Johan Wassermann, hereby approve the submission of the thesis for examination. Prof JM Wassermann iii ETHICAL CLEARANCE CERTIFICATE iv TURNITIN CERTIFICATE v DEDICATIONS I dedicate this work to the following: My parents: my mother, the late Mrs Rose N Maseko-Dlamini and my father Mr Elijah M Dlamini, who always believed in me and inspired me to strive for my utmost capability. I can never thank them enough. May God bless you Gwalagwala, Nyoni YemaKhosi. My daughter, Nozizwe Sanyu and granddaughter, Sinokuhle Sandzi. To them I say they should carry on the baton and never allow it to fall! All my students, for being good friends and good teachers in their own way. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I would like to thank God the Almighty for seeing me through this work. I say “To Him be the Glory, Ngcwele, Ngcwele, Ngcwele!” I would like to also express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Professor Johan Wassermann for his untiring continuous guidance and support. Thank you, Johan, for your constructive criticism, and for sharing your expertise and experience as well as for believing in my ability to finish this study. I can never thank you enough for your continuous commitment, encouragement, patience, kindness and for your generosity in sponsoring the editing of this thesis. Throughout this journey, you have been a mentor, a friend and a pillar of strength. May the Almighty God bless you and your wife, Annette abundantly for all your efforts in seeing me through this very long journey! Special thanks also go to my family for their continuous encouragement and constant support which sustained me through the long process of completing my studies. I am also grateful to all the colleagues at William Pitcher College who contributed in various ways towards the success of this study. Their support is highly appreciated. I would also like to thank the College Principal, Dr P. M. Gumedze for his continuous support and encouragement. I am also indebted to all the history teachers who agreed to participate in this study. It was through their willingness to participate as well as their commitment that I was able to produce this study. Their contribution is highly valued and appreciated. Lastly, I would like to thank Angela Bryan for editing this thesis. Her contribution is also highly appreciated. vii LIST OF ACRONYMS CAPS Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement CIE Cambridge International Examinations CPD Continuous Professional Development ECESWA Examination Council of Eswatini ECOS Examination Council of Swaziland EU/EEC European Union/ European Economic Community FEA Free Education for All FPE Free Primary Education GCE General Certificate of Education GDP Gross Domestic Product HOD Head of Department ICT Information and Communication Technology IGCSE International General Certificate of Secondary Education JC Junior Certificate MOE Ministry of Education MoET Ministry of Education and Training NCC National Curriculum Centre NERCOM National Education Review Commission PGCE Post Graduate Certificate in Education RNCS Revised National Curriculum Statement SACU Southern African Customs Union SGCSE Swaziland General Certificate of Secondary Education SNC Swazi National Council TOT Training Of Trainers TSC Teaching Service Commission UKZN University of KwaZulu-Natal UNDAF United Nations Development Assistance Framework UNESWA University of Eswatini viii Table of Contents Abstract …………………………………………………….…………i Declaration ……………………………………………………..…….iii Ethical Clearance ……………………………………………..……..iv Turnitin Certificate …………………………………………..……….v Dedications .……………………………………………………….....vi Acknowledgements …………………………………….…..……....vii List of Acronyms …………………………………………………....viii Table of Contents …………………………………………………...ix List of tables …………………………………………………….......xvi CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND AND FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY 1 1.1 Introduction …………………………………………………….....1 1.2 Background and context of the study ………………………….2 1.3 Statement of the research problem …………………………...12 1.4 Focus and purpose ……………………………………………..12 1.5 Research questions …………………………………………….13 1.6 Rationale and motivation …………………………………13 1.7 Theoretical framework ………………………………………….16 1.8 Research methodology ………………………………………..17 1.9 Thesis outline .…………………………………………………..19 1. 10 Conclusion ………………………………………………….21 CHAPTER 2: EXPLORING THE RELATED LITERATURE 23 2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………….….....23 2.2 Purpose of a literature review ………………………….………24 2.3 The nature of curriculum …………………………………..…...27 ix 2.4 Curriculum implementation …………………………….….…...35 2.5 Teachers’ experiences of the curriculum implementation process …………………………………….….39 2.6 History teachers’ experiences during the implementation of curriculum change ………………………..60 2.7 Why history teachers experience curriculum change the way they do………………………………………..76 2.8 Conclusion …………………………….………………………....83 CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 85 3.1 Introduction ………………………………….….……………….85 3.2 Theory and its purpose …………………….………………..…85 3.3 Curriculum theory……………………………………..…...........87 3.4 Curriculum theory and implementation in developing countries ...……………………………………………………….88 3.5 Curriculum theory and history education…………….………..90 3.6 Theories used to frame my study ……………………………..92 3.6.1 William Pinar’s theory ………………………….……………..93 3.6.2 Gross, Giacquinta and Bernstein on Implementing educational reform……………………………101 3.7 How the theories were used in the study ……………….......107 3.8 Theoretical assumptions …………………………..................111 3.9 Conclusion ………………………………………..…………….112 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH APPROACH, DESIGN AND METHODS 114 4.1 Introduction ……………………………………….....................114 4.2 Research design ……………………………………………......114 4.2.1 Research approach ……………………………...................115 4.2.2 Research paradigm ..…………………………………….......120 x 4.2.3 Ontological and Epistemological Assumptions …………...122 4.3 Research Methodology …………………………….................123 4.3.1 Multiple Case Studies ………………………………………..124 4.4. Research methods ……………………………….…………....128 4.4.1 Semi-structured interviews ….………………………….….128 4.4.2 Focus group interviews ……………………………..............130 4.4.3 Documentary evidence ……………………….……………...132 4.5 Selecting the research participants ………………………....135 4.5.1 Sampling procedure ………………………………………….135 4.5.2 Description of sample………………………………………...140 4.6 Making preparations for fieldwork ………………………...140 4.6.1 Piloting the study ……………………………………………..140 4.6.2 Data collection procedure ………………………………...141 4.6.3 Data analysis – Making sense of data ……………………..144 4.7 Trustworthiness ………………………………………………....146