View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Springer - Publisher Connector Int J Semiot Law (2015) 28:11–30 DOI 10.1007/s11196-014-9390-9 Quality Assurance in Legal Translation: Evaluating Process, Competence and Product in the Pursuit of Adequacy Fernando Prieto Ramos Published online: 6 September 2014 Ó Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014 Abstract Building on a functionalist framework for decision-making in legal translation, a holistic approach to quality is presented in order to respond to the specificities of this field and overcome the shortcomings of general models of translation quality evaluation. The proposed approach connects legal, contextual, macrotextual and microtextual variables for the definition of the translation ade- quacy strategy, which guides problem-solving and the rest of the translation pro- cess. The same parameters remain traceable between the translation brief and the translation product both in pre-delivery (self-)revision and in post-delivery assess- ment. They are the yardstick for identifying predictable evaluative criteria and competence requirements for translators and quality controllers. The implications of the approach on quality assessment (including training contexts) and quality man- agement practices are also discussed. Overall, the model illustrates the potential benefits of enhancing predictability and reducing subjectivity on the basis of specific legal translation methodologies. It supports the need for legal translation expertise in quality evaluation and the relevance of Legal Translation Studies to raising standards in professional practice. Keywords Legal translation quality Á Translation quality assurance Á Translation adequacy Á Translation quality assessment Á Translator decision-making Á Legal translation competence If we treat text merely as a self-contained and self-generating entity, instead of as a decision-making procedure and an instance of communication between language users, our understanding of the nature of translating will be impaired [21, p. 3]. F. Prieto Ramos (&) Centre for Legal and Institutional Translation Studies (Transius), Faculty of Translation and Interpreting, University of Geneva, Uni Mail, 40, bd du Pont-d’Arve, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] 123 12 F. Prieto Ramos 1 Introduction The demand for quality has been a catalyst for both the recognition of legal translation as professional practice, particularly in multilingual contexts, and for the development of Legal Translation Studies (LTS). The debate on the translation of the Swiss Civil Code at the beginning of the 20th century, the institutionalization of translation in the emergence of the new international legal order after the Second World War, and the introduction of a system of co-drafting in Canada as a way of improving the quality of Canadian legislation in French in the 1970s provide early illustrations of that process. In these contexts, bridge-building between professional practice, research and training had its pioneers in the Geneva school of legal translation [5] and the school of jurilinguistics in the case of Canada [17]. After a few decades of expansion and academic consolidation of LTS, quality enhancement remains a major challenge in the field. As Levy´ [28, p. 77] pointed out when modern Translation Studies (TS) was in its infancy, ‘‘writing on the problems of translation has any sense at all only if it contributes to our knowledge of the agents which influence the translator’s work and its quality.’’ This assertion holds true today for research on legal translation quality (as product), and its relation to decision-making and competence-building processes and, ultimately, for the development of LTS itself [42]. Despite the proliferation of scholarly work and theoretical models, translators have been ‘‘guided more or less by their own intuition’’ in dealing with legal translation problems [46, p. 47], and methodological problems seem to persist even in institutional contexts where quality assurance procedures are systematically implemented (e.g. [39]). The consequences of inadequate legal translations can be dire (see e.g. [10]) for individuals, for private or public entities, and for legal certainty in general. This explains, to a great extent, the high expectations for quality in this field, and the common perception that legal translation is a special branch of professional translation for which relevant qualifications and technical expertise are required (see overview of profiles in [6]). In this context, considering the polarization of the broader translation market with regard to quality, it is in the interest of both practitioners and scholars to prove and measure the value of translation quality from a professional perspective: what characterizes quality in legal translation, which factors have an impact on it, who can assess quality markers and how can these be enhanced. The next sections will explore these questions by focusing on the distinctive features of legal translation, particularly its decision-making parameters and the competence required for their application, as the basis for quality evaluation. The lack of specific benchmarks in this field will first be highlighted (Sect. 2) before describing a process-based approach to quality (Sect. 3), and its implications for quality assurance, assessment and management (Sect. 4). The framework presented below is supported by observation of different professional contexts of legal translation, including institutional practices, and will be used for further empirical research on the correlation between levels of legal translation competence and levels of product quality. 123 Quality Assurance in Legal Translation 13 Throughout this article, the term ‘‘quality assurance’’ will be used as defined by Saldanha and O’Brien [45, p. 95]: ‘‘systems and processes used to help create or maintain quality.’’ In line with this broad sense, ‘‘quality control and quality assessment are contributions to quality assurance’’ [33, p. 118]. In turn, defining translation quality ‘‘inevitably involves measurement and, more often than not, judgement’’ [29, p. 140]. While the use of this terminology may vary between authors,1 for the purpose of this study, we will consider any actions taken to improve the quality of translations as products, regardless of the agent and the stage in the production process. These include self-revision by the translator, corrections by revisers and checks or readings by other ‘‘quality controllers’’ [33, p. 110], although these might not always involve entire texts or a comprehensive set of evaluative criteria. In our analysis of quality through an LTS expert lens, perceptions of lay readers and managerial considerations will be related to the ultimate goal of maximum quality from that LTS perspective, even if, as we will see in Sect. 4, from a management point of view, a fit-for-purpose translation might not necessarily be a top quality one. 2 The Need for Quality Benchmarks in Legal Translation The first question that arises when analyzing translation quality is how to define it, i.e. what makes a quality translation, or what criteria can be used to measure quality. As noted by House [25, p. 1], ‘‘different views of translation lead to different concepts of translational quality, and hence different ways of assessing quality’’. Indeed, perceptions of quality have evolved considerably since the first international conference devoted to the topic by professional translators, the 3rd Congress of the International Federation of Translators (1959). The proceedings of that conference [11] ‘‘display a puzzling array of basically vague and unverifiable statements of opinion suggesting, for instance, a connection between the quality of a translation and the personalities of the author, the translator and the audience, or assessing that 1 Williams [51, p. 163] defines ‘‘quality assurance’’ as the ‘‘systematic pre-delivery activity or activities designed to give assurance that a translation meets quality requirements.’’ For Brunette [8, p. 173], (1) ‘‘translation quality assessment (TQA; translation evaluation; quality evaluation)’’ (also synonyms, among others, for Lauscher [27] and Williams [51]) and (2) ‘‘quality control’’ are ‘‘management terms’’ defined as follows: (1) ‘‘Determination of the quality of a translated text or a check after the fact for management purposes, i.e. measuring the productivity of translators and the quality/price ratio of translations’’; (2) ‘‘Verification to ensure that the product to be delivered or already delivered complies with requirements, language norms and established criteria, with the ultimate goal of saving time and resources.’’ Meanwhile, for Mossop [33, p. 202], ‘‘quality control’’ is synonymous with ‘‘revision’’ before translation delivery, and ‘‘quality assessment’’ is a ‘‘check of selected parts of a translation, often after delivery to the client, by someone other than the translator’’ and the ‘‘result of the assessment may be quantified for such purposes as employee performance assessment and selection of contractors’’. For Saldanha and O’Brien [45, p. 96], ‘‘evaluation’’ is ‘‘a more general term relating to the testing of quality, whereas quality assessment, or QA, is a term frequently used in a professional context to describe the step in the translation process that involves the counting and classification of translation errors’’. According to Colina [12, p. 43], ‘‘assessment normally refers to a process