This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Phytogeography and conservation of neotropical dry forest with emphasis on Colombia Karina Banda-R. Doctor of Philosophy The University of Edinburgh Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 2016 Declaration I hereby declare that the work contained in this thesis is my own, unless otherwise acknowledged and cited. This thesis has not in whole or in part been previously presented for any degree. Karina Banda-R. 15th December, 2016 Abstract Dry forest is one of the most threatened tropical forests in the world. Human impact has caused its massive transformation but conservation of dry forest has often been neglected across Latin America. In Colombia, less than 10% of the original extension of dry forest remains. This thesis studies the phytogeography of neotropical dry forest and its relevance for conservation using data from 1602 tree species inventories made in dry forests across Latin America and the Caribbean synthesised by The Latin American Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest Floristic Network (DRYFLOR). Clustering and ordination analyses were used to explore the floristic relationships of dry forest across the entire Neotropics, revealing distinctive regional clusters defined by their tree species composition. Colombian dry forests are shown to be part of two wider clusters, one including neighbouring forests in Venezuela and southern Central America, and the second including the inter-Andean dry forests. The high turnover of floristic diversity and endemism within and amongst the main floristic groups demonstrates that to conserve the full species diversity in dry forests across Latin America and the Caribbean will require protecting it simultaneously across multiple regions. A regionally focused study of floristic relationships in the Central American and northern South American dry tropical forest group, using quantitative approaches to conservation prioritization, including a new Conservation Priority Index (CPI), suggests that conservation priority should be placed on the South American Caribbean Coast in the cross-border area of Colombia and Venezuela. This emphasises the need for a biogeographical approach to conservation that cannot be restricted by political borders. Within Colombia, new quantitative floristic data were used to investigate controls of floristic composition in dry forests. Multivariate ii analyses showed that space related variables explain a larger fraction of the variance of the floristic composition than climatic or edaphic variables. The importance of spatial variables implies that biogeography is a key element in understanding the structure of communities, and that the Andean cordilleras might be acting as geographical barriers isolating these seasonally dry formations. The value of floristic inventory data for assessing the conservation status of tree species using IUCN criteria was assessed in a case of study of the Andean Piedmont dry forest. By combining inventory data from the DRYFLOR database and herbarium records, the number of species for which we have sufficient information to make conservation assessments increases by 16% and the accuracy of predictive species distribution improves for 84% of the species. Together, these results reveal the importance of ecological inventory data as a complementary data source in conservation assessment for dry forest trees in the Neotropics. Finally, the conclusions chapter places these results in the context of conservation planning for Colombian dry forests, including some suggestions for research, policies and actions. These actions include restoration programmes focusing on sustainable harvesting of native dry forest tree species, for example for firewood and other forest resources such as fruits, fibres and medicines. A land use mosaic, including forest fallows and strict conservation areas, may help to guarantee the long-term maintenance dry forest species in Colombia. iii Acknowledgments The process of completing this thesis has been challenging, productive and enriching in all aspects of my life. I am very pleased to have been surrounded by great people over the last few years. I am enormously grateful to my supervisors and friends, Toby Pennington and Kyle Dexter; this long trip would not have been possible without such kind, brilliant and supportive people. Kyle is always devoting his talents and time, and Toby is an inspirational human being, for whom I do not have enough words to express my admiration. I would like to thank my mentors, Enrique Forero, Gloria Galeano, Orlando Vargas and Xavier Font for all the lessons taught. Thanks to Colciencias for their financial support and the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, especially to Catherine Kidner, Tiina Särkinen, and Martin Pullan. Thanks to the DRYFLOR partners: Ary Oliveira-Filho, Reynaldo Linares, Darien Prado, Alfonso Delgado, Laurie Fajardo, Luciano Galetti, Virginia Mogni, Luis Oakley, Danilo Neves, and immensely to Julia Weintritt and Ricarda Riina. It has been an amazing experience sharing time with such a great team, whose members are as knowledgeable as they are kind. Thanks to ESC for its support and understanding: Gina Rodríguez, Ana Cristina Estupiñán, Ana María Aguilera, Brayan Diaz, Yair Barros, and especially to Lino Olivares, always willing to show me and teach me about his plants. Also, thanks to DRYFLOR Colombia, a novel experiment of trust: Orlando Rivera, Carlos Vargas, Roy González, René López, Juan Bautista Adarve, Alejandro Castaño, Carlos Devia, Omar Melo, Boris Villanueva, Dorian Ruíz, Alicia Rojas, Jorge Meza, Karen Muñoz, Daniel Acevedo, Francisco Castro, Hermes Cuadros, Nelly Rodríguez, Roberto Sánchez, Esteban Álvarez, Álvaro Idárraga, Diego Molina, Hilda Dueñas, Julián Arteaga, and especially to Hernando García and the IAvH. Many thanks to Jaffet Nassar, Gail Stott and William Hawthorne which input in the second Chapter was enormously valued. I also thank my examiners Casey Ryan and Adrian Newton for their valuable comments and suggestions. Thanks to all those who supported and joined me during the fieldwork trips and collection of samples: Konstantin Thierbach, Arlette Rodríguez, Carmenza Rodríguez, Antonio Rodríguez, Juliana Fúquene, Pablo Galindo, Carmenza Panqueva, Roberto Sánchez, Cudris Pacheco, Jorge Rozo, Maria Elvira Rios, Natalia del Pilar Moreno, Carlos Vargas, Carmen Panqueva, Cristina Vásquez, Miguel Betancur, Carolina Mora, Roy González, Karen Pérez, Orlando Rivera, Daniel Acevedo, Julián Arteaga, Alejandro Castaño, Juan iv Adarve, Luis Hoyos, Miller Fernández, María Elvira Rios, Natalia del Pilar Moreno, Boris Villanueva, Álvaro Idárraga, Hilda Dueñas, David Schnörr, Tomás Dario, Diego Molina, Jorge Meza, Alicia Rojas, Christine Bacon, Luciano Galetti, Virginia Mogni, Renata Françoso, Reuber Brandão, Flávia Pezzini, Guilherme Braga, Elías, Manotas, Jhony and Pedro Márquez. A friend once told me that we probably don´t belong to a place, we belong to the relationships we build and maintain over time. I am quite convinced about that. Thanks to my dear colleagues: Eugenio Valderrama, María Camila Gómez, Euridice Honorio, Javier Luna, Renata Françoso, Julieth Serrano, Flávia Pezzini, Vanessa Rezende, Pedro Miranda, Fernanda Coelho, Roosevelt García, Carmen Puglisi, Lakmini Kumarage, Pakkapol Thaowetsuwan, Yun-Yu Chen, Subhani Ranasinghe, Mauricio Cano, Andres Orejuela, Peter Moonlight, and Andy Griffiths for such a nice time, for the points and the shared laughs. For the company, chats, advice and great time since 2012 thanks to all my Edinburgh people: Inma, Yuriko, Toshi, Pau, Cris and Miguel, Nicky, Boni, Andreas, Natalia, Rocio, Euri, Tony, Debby, Nico, Christos, Hugh, and especially to Kyle, Maria, David, Toby, and my godparents Sandy & Mark. What a surprise it has been to find the “parche” in Edinburgh; I never expected to plan and achieve so many projects and goals for my country from this latitude. The experience with rbgeColombia has been simply amazing, as are the team members: James, Eugenio, Mafe, Javier, Maca and Julieth. Thanks to my life friends: Juan Pablo for letting me go, Carolina for her example, Ana Ligia for being her, Ana María for being close in the distance, Julieth and Konstantin for being here. Thanks to my female herd: Rosa, Arlette, Rita, Ruth, Mocha, Fanny, Martha, Mabe, Daf, Julia, Tatá, Maria Antonieta, Fer, Juli, Clarice, and Cata for their support, love, and the wisdom these amazing women have shared with me throughout my life. Gracias totales to Catalina Roberto, Anam cara, who always has the perfect words to say, even in silence. And of course thanks to my Banda, the greatest and extended Banda- Rodríguez: my positive and encouraging mum: Arletina, my supportive dad: José Miguel,