Canals, colonies and class British policy in the Punjab 1880-1940 The construction of the Punjab’s canal network by the British and the extent to which they irrigated and colonised the region remain unmatched in any other part of the world – even today. Canals, colonies and class examines the development of canal irrigation and its eff ect on rural structures in the Punjab at a district level. It looks at how access to this technology among diff erent rural classes created specifi c relations of production in the province. Government policy in the context of changing colonial demands and decisions altered patterns of irrigation and agriculture such that the increasing commercialisation of production, land ownership and tenurial r elations became central to class formation in twentieth-century Punjab. Fareeha Zafar is Professor of Development Studies at the Lahore School of Economics. She has a PhD in geography from the School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London). Her research interests include gender, education and the Pakistani diaspora. British policy in the Punjab 1880-1940 Lahore School of Economics © 2017 Lahore School of Economics All rights reserved. ISBN: 978-969-7502-03-5 First printing April 2017. The views expressed in this volume are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Lahore School of Economics. Cover illustration by Abdur Rahman. Lahore School of Economics Intersection of Main Boulevard, Phase VI, DHA, and Burki Road, Lahore 53200, Pakistan www.lahoreschoolofeconomics.edu.pk To my parents, Zakia and Rahman. Preface This book is based on research conducted during 1977– 80 for my doctoral thesis. It examines the impact of perennial canals on the rural structures of the Punjab between 1890 and 1940. The objective was to seek evidence in the changing policies of the colonial government towards colonisation and their impact on the landscape, production patterns, tenancy relations and class structure. Some of the questions raised in this work have been studied in the past, but with few attempts to synthesise these issues. Where such a synthesis exists, the supporting historical evidence lacks depth. This study demonstrates a close link between the change in rural structures – in particular, the formation of classes – and the development of the irrigation system, based on a detailed investigation of the historical material. With the advent of the new technology, the role of environment in determining the land tenure system declined in importance. This aspect is analysed by comparing the colonised and the old proprietary village lands within the canal colony districts. Guided by the needs of revenue and export demand, the colonial government extended the cultivated area and used local power structures to direct the production and related activities of the small cultivator. To achieve these objectives, the administration relied on large landowners, whose formation it encouraged. The commercialisation of agriculture, high land prices and an increasing tendency towards wage labour in the canal-irrigated areas benefitted the richer sections of rural society. Canal construction within a iii colonial ramewor red the epende the small tivator local nstitutions, l the urgeoning class agricultural abourers f a ing agrari environment, als rising ices decli li standards. accepted that he itish governme was advocat the j peasant s, therefor stioned. iv Acknowledgements I like express deepest hanks m lat father, eer ngineer the Servic Engineers, e wor o the st Canal several projects the canal colonies inspire m explor hes ssues. m ate mother, I thanks or always couraging t read, t m husba for s heerf companions during he mor difficult riods writing. like acknowledge the embers staff f he I Offi Librar for heir unfailing ien i provi m with he equire sources aterials. v Units of currency and measurement anna he upee) lb pound maund appr Re rupee Rs rupees seer appr seer e maund) vii Glossary Abadi Inhab village settlement Abadkar Horse-breeding olonist Abi Lan rr y verflo river anal Abiana Water x Arhti Dealer Atraf Plural taraf Bajra ariety llet Bangar Uplan ract Bania Village shopkee or neylender aste name. Bar hes ar doab Barani Dependen ainfall Batai Re pai or (crop-sharing) Bhai chara ge enure oparcenary tate severalty Bhusa Straw Bet Lan eyond e oode rea, oistene rcolatio r the iver Bund Embankment Chaharam Part of one fourth of the ruler’s share of the produ an dividual am nfluence Chahi Irr fr ell Chahi-abi Irr par fr e a r overflo river anal Chahi-nehri Irr par fr e a r fr canal Chahi-sailabi Irr par fr e a r fr iver ix Chak lo of lan soetes a vllae Chakdar nferor oner n south-est Punab Chakota Lu ran rent or rent onsstng of a fxe aount of ran n the rabi season an a fxe aount of ash n the kharif season Chargah razn an fuel reserve land Charri Jowar gron for fodder Chaudhri Rural notale Cho Small strea Desi ate Dhok alet Doab Lan that les eteen to rers Dofasli oule-roe lan on hich ros are ron n oth the kharif an rabi seasons Ghee larfe utter Gur Suarane ra suar Hithar Riveran Inam fficall rante rht to lan or the lan reenue of an area Inamdar he holder of an inam Jagir fficall rante rht to a gen trat of lan a Muhal revenue term) Jagirdar he holder of a jagir Jagirdari for of tenure see jagir) Jajmani sste uner hh kamins an enals ere grante sall ees of lan to attrat the to the olony areas Jhallar Persan heel y hh water s rase fro a strea or anal Jok Euvalent to ares of land Jowar arety of llet Kallar Barren lan also aple to reh effloresene or salne sol; colletive ter for salne-alkalne sols. Kamin llage artsan or servant x Kankut Realisation of landlord’s share of produce in cash after arasn ts aount an value Kanungo Suervisor of patwaris Kardar ffical revenue olletor Kasht-barani ain-fe ultaton Khadir Floolan Khalis n ts ure form Khalisa Lale to revenue taxayin lan Kharaba he orton of a ro that has fale to ature Kharachh ess realize y lanlor n aton to rent Kharif utun Khudkasht ultvate y the oner Killa Euvalent to are of land Killabandi Susttuton of retangular fels of unfor se of one killa eah for the rregular fels of fferent sze nto hh the lans of a llage ere ornarl vide Lambardar llage heaan officall aonte reresentatve of a vllage ounty Lambardari harge assne over a llage Lawa Reaper Lekha-mukhi ontrat uner hh the etor surreners hs ro to a oneylener ho ears the assoate eenses Lichh Fee a n reognton of a roretary ttle Maash sall ulse Mahal Estate Mahsul Share of rouce ue to the state no share of roue taken y erson ho as the revenue n oney Malba oon llae tax Malik ner or lean an n a seton of a tre Malik adna nferor roretor Malik ala Sueror roretor Malikana Fee a n reognton of a roretary ttle xi Malik-qabza person ho ons the land in his possession ut has no share in the coon propert of the villae counity. Mandi Market ton Manjha entre Maund easure of eiht and capacit euivalent to appro l Mauza illage Moth sall pulse Moong sall pulse Muafi Reenue-free Muafidar he holder of an assignent of land revenue Mukaddim Superior proprietor also leading an or headan in a villae counity. Naib he deput or assistant of the tehsildar tehsildar Nakdi for of rent paid in cash Nala rain or ater-course Nazarana n aateent fro the revenue of an estate retained y the goernent in aarding a land revenue assignent to an indiidual Nehri rriated fro a canal Pachotra surcharge of percent on the revenue paid to the illage headan Paggu Sall cuts ade in the side of a canal Pattidar roprietary leaseholder Pattidari for of illage tenure proprietary lease Patwari illage accountant or registrar Rabi Sprin Rais apitalist Rakh reserve scru forest. Rawa pland tract Reh Saline efflorescence that crystallises in the dr season on the surface and in the upper strata of salt-affected soils ii Rohee rainage lines Ryot easant tenant Ryotwari for of settlement in which the occupant of each holding is under a separate enagement ith the governent as distinuished fro the villae settlement in force in northest ndia Sadr hief principal used in connection ith adinistratie institutions. Sadr hief collector of razing fee tirniguzar Safaid posh Landed entry Sailab Flooded or ept peranently oist y the rier Sailaba s aove Sanad deed of rant Sarawan rant for reeding caels Sardar hieftain Seer easure of eiht one-fortieth of a maund Senji ariety of cloer Shamilat illage coon land Takavi loan ranted y the overnent to a landoner for agricultural purposes Talukdar superior proprietor and doinant ember of rural societ ho has een appointed revenue officer Talukdari harge assined for collectin revenue Taraf Sall holding intensiel cultiated and located near tons Tehsil dinistratie sudivision of a district Tehsildar Suordinate official of the revenue adinistration in charge of a tehsil Tirni he charge levied on the use of razing land Toria Rapeseed Tumandar Leader of a noadic or razin trie Utar nterediate tract eteen rierain and upland area xiii Warisi ereditary Zabti ash rent levied on the cultivation of certain crops Zaid Extra crop Zail roup of estates oer hich a representatie is appointed see zaildar) Zaildar an of influence appointed to hae charge of a zail Zaildari Chare assined oer a zail Zamindar Landoner a doinant eer of local societ appointed the local revenue official under the Mughal administration; defined as ‘proprietor’ under ritish rule Zamindari for of illage tenure iv Contents refae iii noledgements v Units of urreny