Anarchism and Education: A Philosophical Exploration Judith Suissa Dissertation submitted for the degree of PhD Institute of Education, University of London B1BL. LONDIfi. Abstract Anarchism is rarely given serious consideration by political philosophers, often being dismissed as 'utopian', or naively optimistic about human nature. Likewise, although there is a substantial anarchist tradition of educational ideas and practice, this is rarely mentioned in texts on philosophy or history of education. Drawing on work in political philosophy, philosophy of education and history of education, I explore the theoretical foundations of anarchism and the educational ideas of anarchist theorists and activists. The anarchist perspective, it is argued, is unique in the world of radical education, and should not be conflated with libertarian education. In order to highlight the philosophical insights which emerge from anarchist thought and practice, I compare anarchism with the connected traditions of liberalism and Marxism. In addition to dismissing some common misperceptions of anarchism, I discuss the educational implications of fundamental anarchist ideas. Central to this discussion is the notion of human nature which, while at the crux of much of the criticism of anarchism, also has a crucial bearing on the role of education within anarchist thought. It is argued that one cannot grasp the anarchist position on education without understanding the political context from which it stems. Equally, one cannot assess the viability of anarchism as a political ideology without appreciating the role played by education within anarchist thought — a role which is often overlooked. While not purporting to resolve the theoretical tensions within anarchism, I show that anarchist thought yields insights for educational philosophers, policy makers and practitioners. In exploring the charge of utopianism, I suggest that a consideration of anarchist ideas prompts us to ask questions about the role of philosophy of education. Anarchism, it is shown, overlaps significantly with both the liberal and the socialist traditions. Thus, although anarchism may seem in many ways to challenge the liberal tradition, it in fact both affirms important liberal principles and offers a motivating ideal for educators and philosophers of education. 2 Table of Contents Acknowledgements 5 Introduction 6 Chapter One: Anarchism: Definitions and Complexities 16 Chapter Two: Anarchism, Philosophy of Education and Liberal 28 Suspicions Liberalism and Liberal Education 32 Liberal Theory 33 Liberal Education 36 Chapter Three: Anarchism, Liberalism and Human Nature 39 Human Nature in Social Anarchist Theory 41 Human Nature and the Capitalist State 45 Nurturing the Propensity for Mutual Aid 47 The Ideal of Rationality 50 Human Nature in Liberalism 53 Chapter Four: Which Values? Which State? 55 Autonomy in Anarchism and Liberalism 58 Reciprocal Awareness 63 Liberal Paternalism and Libertarianism 66 Autonomy and Community: Tensions and Questions 67 Robert Wolff and the Argument from Autonomy 71 Educational Implications 75 The Anarchist Objection to the State 77 Authority 80 Chapter Five: The Positive Core of Anarchism 86 Equality 87 Fraternity 93 Liberal Values? Anarchist Values? 99 Education for the Social Virtues 100 Chapter Six: Anarchism Goes to School 103 The Escuela Moderna, Barcelona, 1904-1907 107 The Ferrer School, New York and Stelton, 1911-1953 111 Walden School, Berkeley, 1956 - 118 Summerhill : A Non-Anarchist Experiment 123 Anarchist Schools Versus Libertarian Education 128 Means and Ends in Education 130 Chapter Seven: Education for an Anarchist Society: Vocational Training and Political Visions 134 Part I Vocational Education: Theory and Practice 135 Integral Education 135 3 Integral Education and Fraternity 139 Winch and Pring: A Philosophical Perspective 141 Scarcity and the Circumstances of Justice 155 Part II The Moral and Political Content of Education 157 Removing State Control of Schools 157 Political Education for Social Change 159 Moral Education — The Missing Link 164 Chapter Eight: What's So Funny About Anarchism? 167 Liberal Neutrality, Education and the Liberal State 167 The Minimal State and Social Values 171 Revolutionary Tactics: Social Anarchism Versus Marxism 177 Goals and Visions 179 Utopianism and Philosophy of Education 182 Conclusion 191 Situating Anarchism: Insights and Implications 191 An Anarchist Philosophy of Education? 193 References 198 4 Acknowledgements I cannot possibly thank all those whose words and thoughts have accompanied me during my work on this thesis. Certain people, however, deserve mention. First and foremost, Patricia White, my supervisor, who has my deepest gratitude not just for the wisdom and sensitivity of her academic supervision, but also for her cheerful willingness to slip, apparently effortlessly, into the role of friend, therapist, cheer-leader, mentor and child-minder, as the situation demanded. Thanks are due also: To the students and faculty of the Philosophy Section at the Institute of Education, who could not have provided a more supportive environment in which to pursue this project, and whose remarks, humour, insights and arguments have often prompted significant developments in both my intellectual and emotional involvement in this work. To the Central Research Fund of the Universityof London, for a grant which enabled me to spend sevceral days in Amsterdam doing valuable reseach at the International Insitute of Social History. To the Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain for a generous award which helped me to continue my work while .spending a year away from the Institute. To Colin Ward, who, in true anarchist spirit of mutual aid, has supplied me with an often overwhelming supply of anarchist literature and other resources, and whose enthusiasm for this project, at a stage when I was unsure of it myself was instrumental in getting it off the ground To my parents, for never doubting that I would get this thing finished, and to Hanan, for giving me the support, in more ways than one, that enabled me to finish it. Lastly, to my children, Lia and Yonatan. Without them, this work would certainly have been completed far sooner. Yet the intellectual and emotional context from which it grew and with which it continues to interact is, I have no doubt, far richer for their being a part of it. 5 Introduction `To declare for a doctrine so remote as anarchism at this stage of history', wrote Herbert Read in 1938, 'will be regarded by some critics as a sign of intellectual bankruptcy; by others as a sort of treason, a desertion of the democratic front at the most acute moment of its crisis; by still others as merely poetic nonsense....' (Read, 1938, in Read, 1974, p. 57). After witnessing the responses of friends and colleagues over the past few years on hearing the topic of my research, I must say I can sympathize with Read's sentiments. Why, then do I think anarchism is worth taking seriously? And why, particularly, do I think it has something to say to philosophers of education? Part of my motivation is the need to address what appears to be a gap in the literature. Although the anarchist position on education is, as I hope to establish, distinct and philosophically interesting, and although it has been expressed powerfully at various times throughout recent history, it is consistently absent from texts on philosophy of education — even amongst those authors who discuss 'radical' or 'progressive' educational theories. Indeed, one issue which I address in this thesis is the failure of many theorists to distinguish between libertarian education (Tree schools'), and anarchist educational projects and ideas. I hope to establish that the principles underlying the anarchist position make such projects significantly distinct from other approaches in radical education, and arguably more educationally defensible. Similarly, both academic texts and public perceptions often involve simplifications, distortions or misunderstandings of anarchism. The typical response of contemporary scholars to the anarchist idea — that it is 'utopian', 'impractical', or `over-optimistic regarding human nature' (see, for example, Wolff, 1996; Scruton, 1982) - needs to be scrutinized if one is to give anarchism serious consideration. To what extent are these charges justified? And what are the philosophical and political assumptions behind them? Indeed such charges themselves have, for me, raised fascinating questions about the nature and role of philosophy of education. In what sense are we bound by the political and social context within which we operate? To 6 what extent should we be bound by it, and what is our responsibility in this regard as philosophers? If philosophy is to reach beyond the conceptual reality of our present existence, how far can it go before it becomes 'utopian', and what does this mean? And if we do want to promote an alternative vision of human life, to what extent are we accountable for the practicality of this vision? Trying to answer these and other related questions is not only an intriguing intellectual task, but also an important part of the ongoing project to define the scope of philosophy of education and its relation to other disciplines. So while the focus of this work is an exploration of the philosophical issues involved in anarchist ideas of education, these broader questions form the back-drop to the discussion. The bulk of this work, however, consists in an attempt to piece together