South African Archaeological Society Sharing Symbols: A Correspondence in the Ritual Dress of Black Farmers and the Southeastern San Author(s): Pieter Jolly Source: Goodwin Series, Vol. 9, Further Approaches to Southern African Rock Art (Dec., 2005), pp. 86-100 Published by: South African Archaeological Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3858037 Accessed: 04-01-2016 09:12 UTC Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/ info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. South African Archaeological Society is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Goodwin Series. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 137.158.114.125 on Mon, 04 Jan 2016 09:12:10 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 86 South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series 9: 86-100,2005 SHARING SYMBOLS: A CORRESPONDENCE IN THE RITUAL DRESS OF BLACK FARMERS AND THE SOUTHEASTERN SAN PIETER JOLLY Department of Archaeology, University ofCape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town, 7701 South Africa. E-mail: [email protected] "The Bushmen dance and drink beer with Cetwa's people." Black farmers' rites and religious beliefs can be detected in Statement of Archives Chaka, Cape (1849). the overt content and underlying symbolism of some of the executed San artists within the contact ABSTRACT paintings by period (Thackeray 1986; Prins 1990, 1994, 2001; Dowson 1994; Jolly A the dress some in rock feature of of people depicted paintings of 1992, 1994, 1995, 1996b, 1998). Developing this thesis, I focus the southeastern San is a bandolier - or what are strips strings of here on a particular item of dress, almost certainly a form of leather, sinew or beads which criss-cross the chest the probably of ritual accoutrement, which is depicted in a number of rock shown them. A similar item dress is worn in a wide people wearing of paintings from areas occupied by southeastern San and by societies mediums and initiands range of African by diviners/spirit by Nguni and Sotho groups. This has a bandolier-like form, and, their rites. In this article, reasons this during puberty possible for from examination of the imagery, almost all the examples in the in dress southeastern San and Black are correspondence of farmers art appear to depict strings of beads, or leather or sinew strips, and discussed within the context culture explored of inter-group which criss-cross the chest and back of the person with whom it exchange. It is concluded that this item of dress was brought with Black is associated. as moved southwards west and central and farmers they from Africa, I will show, first, that the bandolier is a feature of the ritual was subsequently introduced to some southeastern San groups with dress worn in two specific contexts by Black farmers in regions whom they had established close and symbiotic relationships. Some of of Africa as widely separated as South Africa and Senegal. The the other elements in San rock paintings that are present in areas symbolic significance of, and possible reasons for, this corre? occupied by Black farmers and San, but which are absent from areas spondence in the dress of some San groups and Black farmers where these did not come into contact with each also groups other, may will then be discussed within the wider context of studies of re? have been introduced into southeastern San culture and art as a result gional variation in the art and cultural exchange between ofthe influence of Blackfarmers on San cultures. This process is likely hunter-gatherers and other groups in Africa. It is concluded to have contributed to in the overt content and the regional diversity that this item of dress, and other elements in San art of areas symbolism ofSan rockpaintings. occupied by both San people and Black farmers, came to be depicted, or emphasized, in the art as a result of the influence of INTRODUCTION Black farmers' cultures on those of the San1. San hunter-gatherers and Black farmers first probably To argue for the cultures of Black farmers' having influ? came into contact with each other in South Africa present-day enced those of the San is, of course, not to exclude the likeli? with the arrival of Early Iron Age farmers in the Waterberg hood that Khoesan cultures influenced those of Black about the mid-second AD & Fuls and century (Vogel 1999), farmers. There is evidence that both processes occurred. It is Black farmers were in KwaZulu-Natal at least the present by very likely, for example, that the Khoesan had an influence on fifth AD & Moon was century (Whitelaw 1996). Impetus given some aspects of Cape Nguni divination. The Xhosa word for to these of armer interaction the processes hunter-gatherer-f by diviner, igqira, is derived either from the San word for medi- arrival of southern Sotho farmers on the southern Highveld, cine-person (Botha & Thackeray 1987) or, perhaps more likely, the Free State 1976, roughly present (Maggs 1980), probably from the word for medicine-person in the languages of the around 1640 AD & Fuls Between the time of first (Vogel 1999). Khoekhoen (Maingard 1934; Harinck 1969), entire clans of contact and the end of the San rock tradition in South painting which had merged entirely with Xhosa groups by at least the Africa and 1700 Lesotho, approximately years later, many 18th century. San are considered effective curers by many southern San came to establish of groups relationships varying Kalahari Bantu-speakers (Lee 1984; Shostak 1990) and it is kinds and intensities with Black immigrant farmers, ranging therefore possible that Bantu-speaker diviners adopted some from bitter at one end of the to close and conflict, spectrum, of the elements associated with the religious beliefs and rites of harmonious contact at the other Schofield (Schapera 1930; San curers. Hammond-Tooke (1998), for example, has argued Walton Vinnicombe 1949; 1956; Wright 1971; 1976; Campbell convincingly that there was a limited and selective San influ? Mazel Hall Loubser & Laurens 1987; 1989; 1990; 1994; Wadley ence on Cape Nguni divination rites in the form of the incorpo- Van der 1996; Jolly 1994,1996a; Ryst 1998; Thorp 2000). ration of the element of trance experience into the principal In those cases where southeastern San and Black farmers in dance performed by Cape diviner initiands during their South Africa and Lesotho established symbiotic relationships, thwasa training period. This is likely to have occurred as a re? and we know that ritual relationships, as well as ties of trade, sult of their exposure to San healing (trance) dances, and may patronage, marriage and friendship were established between have been a female reaction to Nguni patriarchy (Hammond- many of these farmer groups and San during the long period in Tooke 1998). The use of two sticks by diviners when dancing which they interacted, conditions would have existed for may also be a custom that was adopted from San culture. cultural exchange between the groups. The fact that cultural While we can therefore expect Khoesan culture to have had traits are known to have been adopted and/or adapted by a an influence on some Nguni rites and beliefs, I concentrate here number of San groups from Black agriculturists with whom almost entirely on the influence of Bantu-speakers cultures on they were in close and harmonious contact has led some those of the San. I have done so for two reasons. Firstly, cultural researchers to suggest that elements indicating the influence of flow from San to Bantu-speaking farmers would have had little This content downloaded from 137.158.114.125 on Mon, 04 Jan 2016 09:12:10 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series 9: 86-100,2005 87 or no impact on the overt content and the underlying symbol? ism of San art. It would show up in ethnographic studies of Bantu-speakers. In contrast, at least some of the beliefs and rites adopted and/or adapted by the San from Black farmers should - manifest in San art the subject of this article. Secondly, it seems to me that the full extent to which San have been influ? enced by the cultures of their agriculturist neighbours has not always been recognized. Spielmann and Eder (1994:307-8), for example, make the point that, worldwide, it is far more common for hunter-gatherers to adopt the customs of neigh? bouring agriculturists and pastoraUsts than for the reverse process to occur. The examples of changes in San cultures that I list and discuss in sections of the remainder of this paper make it clear that Black farmers' cultures have had a major influence on the cultures of many San groups. This, in turn, has implications for San rock art studies. BANDOLIERS IN SAN ETHNOGRAPHY AND ART Bandoliers are very seldom worn by San or Khoekhoen people, and do not appear to have been worn by any of those San or Khoekhoen living outside areas where Black farmers settled. Although not exhaustive, my extensive search of travel? lers' accounts and ethnographies failed to reveal any evidence that San or Khoekhoen outside of areas settled Black farmers by FIG. 1. Rock painting of a clapping woman with bandolier.Several other bandoliers.