University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection 2017+ University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 2018 Beyond Twitter Revolutions: The Impact of Digital Media Logistics on Terror Networks of Communication in Iraq and Syria from 2014 to 2016 Ahmad Mahmoud Shehabat University of Wollongong Follow this and additional works at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/theses1 University of Wollongong Copyright Warning You may print or download ONE copy of this document for the purpose of your own research or study. The University does not authorise you to copy, communicate or otherwise make available electronically to any other person any copyright material contained on this site. You are reminded of the following: This work is copyright. Apart from any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part of this work may be reproduced by any process, nor may any other exclusive right be exercised, without the permission of the author. 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Recommended Citation Mahmoud Shehabat, Ahmad, Beyond Twitter Revolutions: The Impact of Digital Media Logistics on Terror Networks of Communication in Iraq and Syria from 2014 to 2016, Doctor of Philosophy thesis, School of the Arts, English and Media, University of Wollongong, 2018. https://ro.uow.edu.au/theses1/635 Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected] Beyond Twitter Revolutions: The Impact of Digital Media Logistics on Terror Networks of Communication in Iraq and Syria from 2014 to 2016 This thesis is presented in fulfilment of the award of the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY From THE UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG By AHMAD MAHMOUD SHEHABAT, BA, MA, MA (HONS) SCHOOL OF THE ARTS, ENGLISH AND MEDIA 2018 Declaration of Originality I, Ahmad Mahmoud Shehabat, declare that this thesis, submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy, in the School of The Arts, English and Media, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution. 15/08/2018 i Table of Contents Declaration of Originality ........................................................................................................ i Table of Contents ................................................................................................................... ii List of Figures ...................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ xii List of Abbreviations .......................................................................................................... xiii Abstract ............................................................................................................................... xiv Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ xvi Timeline of ISIS’ operations 2014-2016 ............................................................................... xvii Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 Research Questions .................................................................................................................. 12 Theoretical Base....................................................................................................................... 13 Study Approaches .................................................................................................................... 23 Aims and Scope of the Study ................................................................................................... 25 Methodology ............................................................................................................................ 29 Platform Analysis..................................................................................................................... 31 Screenshots .............................................................................................................................. 32 1 Chapter 1: Terror Organisations and Web Technology in the Arab World in the 21st Century ..................................................................................................................................... 34 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 34 1.2 The Emergence of Jihadi Movements—A Historical Perspective ............................ 35 1.3 The Rise of Hamas .................................................................................................... 36 1.4 The Rise of Al-Qaeda ................................................................................................ 37 1.5 Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) ............................................................................................. 39 1.6 Terror Communication Before the Emergence of ISIS ............................................. 40 1.7 Al-Qaeda’s Cyber Operations ................................................................................... 40 1.8 Al-Qaeda Prior to September 11, 2001 ..................................................................... 42 1.9 The Occupation of Iraq in 2003 and the Emergence of ISIS .................................... 44 1.10 The Logistics of Psychological Warfare ................................................................... 45 1.11 Hezbollah’s Media Strategy ...................................................................................... 49 1.12 Information Dissemination During the 1996 and 2006 Lebanon Wars with Israel .. 51 1.13 Social Media Networks During the 2006 Lebanon War ........................................... 54 1.14 Information Warfare—Hezbollah Versus Israel ....................................................... 57 ii 1.15 Hamas and Online Media .......................................................................................... 61 1.16 Social Media During Wartime in Gaza ..................................................................... 64 1.17 Winners and Losers—Information Warfare During Wartime in Gaza ..................... 68 1.18 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 71 2 Chapter2 Post–Arab Spring Networking Dynamics—Information-Centric Warfare and Social Media Networks ............................................................................................................ 73 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 73 2.2 Web 2.0 and the Arab Spring Uprisings ................................................................... 74 2.3 Networking Tendencies and Political Polarisation During the Arab Spring Uprisings 77 2.4 Political Polarisation and Mobilisation Logistics...................................................... 79 2.5 Networks of Outrage and Hope ................................................................................. 83 2.6 Networks of Antagonism and Hate ........................................................................... 86 2.7 Networks of Terror .................................................................................................... 88 2.8 Syrian Case Study ..................................................................................................... 88 2.8.1 Social Media Warfare—Syrian Free Army versus Syrian Electronic Army ..... 89 2.8.2 Digital Logistics of the Syrian Uprising ............................................................ 90 2.9 The Fake YouTube .................................................................................................... 94 2.10 The Facebook Interface ............................................................................................. 95 2.11 Skype Encryption Tools ............................................................................................ 97 2.12 Social Media Networks: Information-Centric Warfare ............................................. 98 2.13 Iraq Case Study—Anbar Uprisings ......................................................................... 101 2.14 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 106 3 Chapter 3: ISIS’ Information Operations—A Strategic Narrative Perspective .............. 107 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 107 3.2