THE BATTLE OVER KIRD/ZAZA IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION IN ÇEWLİG/BİNGÖL (1980-2015) Submitted by Mithat Ishakoglu to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Kurdish Studies in September 2018 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: ………………………………………………………….. 1 Abstract This thesis examines the identity construction of Kird/Zaza in Çewlig/Bingöl. It will track how the Kird/Zaza identity is being constructed, and who the main actors of this identity formation are. This research will also analyse how the political and cultural battle over Kird/Zaza identity has been conducted in Çewlig/Bingöl between 1980 and 2015. Furthermore, it will examine how the Kird/Zaza identity is being constructed by different political actors and groups in Çewlig/Bingöl. This research argues that the process of ‘identifying’ the locals has begun by the Turkish state taking a direct position in identity politics. Since 1930s, the Turkish state has introduced the idea of ‘the Zazas are not Kurds’. This idea was opposed by the Kurdish movements’ counter-argument claiming that Zazas have always been one of the main pillars of Kurdishness. Since 1980s, the Zazas have initiated to become a subject group of these identity discussions that have been played over them. Thereby, the main timescale focus in this identity formation will be between 1980 and 2015. Thus, this research will, particularly, focus on the construction and consolidation of Kird/Zaza identity. The analyses of the thesis will be based on the case study analyses of the Kirdki/Zazaki- speaking group in Çewlig/Bingöl. Besides, it will take Çewlig/Bingöl as its geographical study area. There are Zazaki and Kurmanji speaking groups as well as Sunni Muslim, and Alevis as religious groups in and surrounding areas of Çewlig/Bingöl. Therefore, it will also explore the neighbouring areas such as Dersim/Tunceli, Elazig, Diyarbakir and Mus to compare local identity dynamics. This research has been based on interdisciplinary approach, applying theories of political anthropology, cultural anthropology, political sciences, sociology, ethnicity and nationalism. This study will adopt qualitative research approaches and main aspects of qualitative research, such as interviews, observation, participant observation and discourse analysis are used in this research. Finally, the analysis of this thesis is accomplished through examination of various contemporary resources such as identity literatures, governments` reports, books, journals, websites, and interviews. 2 Acknowledgement I owe tremendous debt of gratitude to a number of people, friends, colleagues, academic staff at the University of Exeter and my family, who have helped and supported me during this thesis. Firstly, I must thank the Kird/Zazas of Çewlig/Bingöl who shared their life stories and memories. For their security in the current conditions of Turkey, I will not mention their names but without their participation this research would not be completed. I am also thankful to my interviewees mainly in Sweden and Germany. I would like to stress my huge gratitude to Ridvan Kizgin, the ex-chair of Çewlig/ Bingöl Human Rights Association, who unfortunately passed away in 2010. His ideas in our discussions during his service as chair of Human Rights Association in Çewlig/ Bingöl have inspired me greatly for this thesis. I would like to thank my friends, Seevan Said, Allan Hassaniyan Aziz Kaya, Cewdet Sêrti, Kawa Rojava, Aledin Nisêbîn. I am thankful to Yiannis Kanakis and Sophie Richter- Devroe for motivating me at the early stage of this thesis. I owe a debt of gratitude to my supervisors Gareth Stansfield and Marc Valeri, Clemence Scalbert-Yucel, Christine Robins and Zoe Humble for their support at different stages of this research. I must specially thank Selahattin Demirtas, the imprisoned ex- co chair of HDP, who has given a professional reference for my acceptance at the University of Exeter. Finally, the love and encouragement of my family have helped me through hard times of this thesis. I owe special thanks to my wife Netice, my parents and all my family for their support and inspiration. 3 Abbreviations AKP: Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi (Justice and Development Party) ANAP: Anavatan Partisi (Motherland Party) AP: Adalet Partisi (Justice Party) BDP: Baris ve Demokrasi Partisi (Peace and Democracy Party) CHP: Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi (Republic People Party) DBP: Demokratik Bolgeler Partisi, (Democratic Regions Party) DP: Demokrat Parti (Democrat Party) DTK: Demokratik Topluluk Kongresi (Democratic Society Congress) DTP: Demokratik Toplum Partisi (Democratic Society Party) DEP: Demokratik Partisi (Democratic Party) DEHAP: Demokratik Halk Partisi (Democratic people Party) DSP: Demokratik Sol Parti (Democratic Left Party) FP: Fazilet Partisi (Virtue Party) GAP: Guneydogu Anadolu Projesi (Southeastern Anatolia Project) HAK-PAR: Hak ve Ozgurluk Partisi (Rights and Freedom Party) HDK: Halkin Demokratik Kongresi (Democratic People congress) HDP: Halkin Demokratik Partisi (Democratic People Party) HEP: Halk Emek Partisi (People Labour Party) IHD: Insan Haklere Dernegi (Human Rights Association) JITEM: Jandarma Istihbarat ve Terorle Mucadele (Gendarmarie Intelligence Centre and Fight Against Terrorism) KCK: Koma Civaken Kurdistan (Unions of Communities in Kurdistan) KURDI-DER: Komeleya Lêkolîn û Pêşvexistina Zimanê Kurd (Kurdish Language Development Association) MEZLUM-DER: İnsan Hakları ve Mazlumlar İçin Dayanışma Derneği" (Organization of Human Rights and Solidarity for Oppressed People) MHP: Milliyet Hereket Partisi (National Movement Party) PKK: Partiya Karkeren Kurdistan (Kurdistan Workers Party) RP: Refah Partisi (Welfare Party) SP: Saadet Partisi (Felicity Party) TBMM: Turkiye Buyuk Millet Meclisi (Turkish Grand National Assembly) 4 (TIP): Turkiye Isci Partisi (Turkish Labour Party) (KDP-T): Kurdistan Demokrat Partisi-Turkiye (Party of Turkish Kurdistan) (DDK0): Devrimci Dogu Kultur Ocaklari, (Cultural Hearths of Revolutionary East) 5 Contents THE BATTLE OVER KIRD/ZAZA IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION IN ÇEWLİG/BİNGÖL (1980-2015) ............................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Introduction, Research Question, Methodology and Theoretical Framework ......... 8 1.1 A Brief Definition of Kirds/Zazas ................................................................................. 13 1.2 Research Question ......................................................................................................... 23 1.3 Conceptual Framwork ................................................................................................... 25 Theoretical Approach to Identity Construction ................................................................... 25 1.3.1 Ethnicity as an Identity Marker .................................................................................. 27 1.3.2 Religious Identity ....................................................................................................... 36 1.3.3 National Identity ........................................................................................................ 39 1.3.4 Local Identity: ‘Us’ and ‘Others’ ............................................................................... 44 1.4 Literature Review .......................................................................................................... 49 I.5 Methodological Considerations ..................................................................................... 65 1.5.1 Broader Research Context .......................................................................................... 65 1.5.2 Research Methods ...................................................................................................... 66 1.5.3 Positionality: Advantages and Disadvantages of Being an ‘Insider’ ......................... 71 1.6 Fieldwork Undertaken From 2011 – 2013 .................................................................... 72 Criteria in Choosing My Sources: ....................................................................................... 72 1.6.1 Some Data Collected from Fieldwork Trips Undertaken (2011 – 2013) ................... 73 1.6.2 The Visit To Observe the Parliamentary Elections Çewlig/Bingöl Province (30/05/11 – 24/06/11) .......................................................................................................................... 78 1.6.3 Interview with Mr Idris Baluken, the MP of Çewlig/Bingöl for the pro-Kurdish party BDP ..................................................................................................................................... 85 Chapter 2: The Historical Background .................................................................................... 86 2.1 Kurdish History towards the End of the Ottoman Empire ............................................ 88 2.2 The Kurdish Resistance to the Early State Policies, and an Era of Silence .................. 91 2.3 The 1960s to 1980s ....................................................................................................... 99 2.4 References