Masculinity and Religion in the Life and Posthumous Representations of Antarctic Explorer H. R. Bowers, c.1902 - 1939 A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Master of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2014 Kellie A. Vernon School of Arts, Languages and Cultures 2 Contents Abstract 3 Declaration 4 Copyright Statement 4 Acknowledgements 5 The Author 5 Introduction 6 Scott’s ‘Treasure’: Representations of Henry Robertson Bowers, c.1913 - 1921 25 Apsley Cherry-Garrard, George Seaver and Representations of Henry Robertson Bowers, c.1922 -1939 58 ‘A Strange Paradox’: Gender, Race and the ‘Flight from Domesticity’, c.1902 - 1912 86 Henry Bowers, Charles Taze Russell and Religious Faith 112 Conclusion 140 Bibliography 143 Word count (main text including footnotes and endnotes) – 44,975 3 Abstract This thesis is the first academic study of the life of Lt. Henry Robertson (‘Birdie’) Bowers, the fifth man of Robert Falcon Scott’s ill-fated Terra Nova expedition to the South Pole of 1910 - 1913. Bowers played a central role in Scott’s last expedition and the famous Cape Crozier Expedition with Edward Wilson and Apsley Cherry- Garrard. Scott included him in the final party of five that marched to the South Pole in January 1912, only to discover they had been preceded by a Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen. Bowers died alongside Scott and Wilson on their return journey from the Pole at the end of March 1912. This thesis presents the first academic analysis of Bowers in relation to three bodies of scholarship. Firstly, the thesis examines the specialist polar literature to map how Bowers has been represented. Secondly, the thesis engages with scholarship on gender, to situate representations of Bowers within broader trends in the history of masculinities in the first-half of the twentieth century, and to reveal how Bowers conceived of himself as man. Finally, the thesis uses a study of Bowers’ faith to intervene in debates about the history of religion on the eve of the First World War. Chapter one demonstrates that Scott’s representation of Bowers as described in his 1913 journals as strong, reliable, indefatigable and cheerful, became the de facto one echoed by Bowers’ contemporaries. Chapter two shows that Scott’s representation persisted in expedition narratives during the 1920s and 30s, culminating in the Reverend George Seaver’s 1938 biography, Birdie Bowers of the Antarctic. Chapter three is the first study to analyse Bowers’ correspondence in detail. It reveals a very different Bowers engaged in family life and expressing complex ideas on many subjects including sexuality, the role of women, politics and the passing of Empire. Chapter four charts Bowers’ extensive, peculiar, and hitherto undocumented personal engagement with faith and, in particular, with the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society and the work of its founder Charles Taze Russell. It reveals a complex character whose actions, including his decision to remain in the tent with Scott at the end, cannot be fully understood, without an appreciation of his faith. The implications of this research for historians are three-fold, demonstrating the significant interplay between faith, manliness and identity in the period. Firstly, Bowers offers a valuable case study in how representations become fixed, and subsequently remain unchallenged. Secondly, the analysis of under explored personal correspondence of a well-known heroic figure reveals the importance of subjective experience through autobiographical writings. In keeping with other historians, this thesis supports the emerging focus on the individual nature of masculinity. Thirdly, a consideration of the personal faith of significant historical characters cannot be overlooked. An exploration of men’s religious faith and its effects on their subjective experience of being male is under explored. A detailed appreciation of Bowers’ faith provides a new perspective not only on his role in the final few months of the Terra Nova expedition, but more generally in charting the nature of religion in subjective masculine experiences. 4 Declaration No portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning. Copyright Statement i. The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and s/he has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes. ii. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form part of any such copies made. iii. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trade marks and other intellectual property (the “Intellectual Property”) and any reproductions of copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions. iv. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/DocuInfo.aspx?DocID=487), in any relevant Thesis restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Library’s regulations (see http://www.manchester.ac.uk/library/aboutus/regulations) and in The University’s policy on Presentation of Theses. 5 Acknowledgements My grateful thanks to Professor Hannah Barker for her support and comments. I am especially grateful to my supervisor Dr Max Jones for his enthusiasm and total support throughout, it is most appreciated. To Naomi Boneham for her help in the archive and long chats about ‘Her Boys’, and Philip Sidney for being my eyes at SPRI when I could not get there. To the two wonderful women with whom I spent my childhood, Elsie Hoctor and Florence Lane, I wish you could have been here to see this. To my family, David and Michelle Hoctor, for their love and total support. I love you. To my best friend Antonia for always believing in me and providing wine and consolation when needed! Special thanks to my beautiful girls, Thea and Imogen for being the sunshine in my days. I love you lots. For my son Euan, whose long and difficult battle with bone cancer, its treatment and subsequent long lasting health problems has proven to me that we must always try to achieve our dreams. Your strength is my inspiration. Finally, the most important person of all, my husband Andy, whose belief in my abilities and support has been unbelievable. I would never have attempted this without you, and it is all for you. The Author Kellie Vernon holds a Diploma in Professional Studies in Nursing from Manchester University (gained in 1998), BA from Liverpool Hope University in Theology, Religious Studies and Identity completed part-time around her family commitments including her son’s treatment for cancer in 2005, and an MA in Reformation History from the University of Birmingham also completed part-time in 2007. Her MA thesis examined in detail the Coronation of King Edward VI. This thesis is her first modern history research. Outside of her part-time research, she is a Disability Specialist Tribunals Member for HM Courts and Tribunals Service, and specialist welfare benefits advisor for Citizens Advice Bureaux. 6 Introduction Bowers (Birdie) stout, strong redhair [sic]. Most energetic of all, runs stores, always working, reads little, don’t argue much but a hopeful conservative, enjoys chaffing. Gets on well with everyone.1 Nearly one hundred years ago the geologist Frank Debenham echoed his fellow geologist, Griffith Taylor, in his description of his colleague Henry Robertson ‘Birdie’ Bowers as ‘a fat little man with a perfectly immense nose and red bristly hair, unquenchable spirits and energy’.2 Such colourful characterizations of Bowers have gone largely unexamined, in spite of the considerable scholarship on the British Antarctic Expedition 1910-1913, led by Captain Robert Falcon Scott, RN. Although representations of Bowers have continually appeared in relation to other team members, he has never been the subject of a detailed academic study. This dissertation presents the first scholarly analysis of the public representation and personal testimonies of Birdie Bowers, with particular reference to masculinities and religious faith. 1. Biography Born in Greenock, Scotland on 29 July 1883 the son of a merchant seaman with links to the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) Alexander, and a deeply religious mother Emily, who had taught as a missionary, Henry Robertson Bowers was the youngest of three children.3 His father having died when he was a young child, he was 1 Griffith Taylor ‘Dramatis Personae of the Expedition’, no date MS1003/9/591- attachment to 9/590, National Library of Australia. 2 Ranulph Sir Fiennes, Captain