This dissertation has been 63—50 microfilmed exactly as received GIBSON, James William, 1932- DIRECT AND INDIRECT ATTITUDE SCALE MEASUREMENTS OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ARGUMENTATIVE COMMUNICATIONS. The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1962 Speech—Theater University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan 5 probable if an individual initially agrees with the message or is the probability of reinforcement or change greater if the subject initially disagrees with the message? The implications for persuasion are im- O portant. Research reported by Brehm suggests that pressures will develop to reduce the state of dissonance. Evidence to support this. statement is based on subject action. This study will involve an examination of attitudinal changes taking place in consonant and dis­ sonant subjects. The direct and indirect attitude scales will be utilized to measure the extent of attitude change as a result of the communication stimuli. I. Experimental Questions The experimental questions to be answered in this study are these: 1. What relationship exists between attitude scores toward censorship obtained with a Thurstone attitude scale and attitude scores toward censorship obtained with a forced-choice attitude instrument? 2. Do positive type communication stimuli induce greater atti­ tude changes than communication stimuli which are negative in structure? 3. Are changes in attitude by homogeneously structured audi­ ences as a result of a communication stimulus different from changes in attitude by heterogeneously structured audiences? O Jack W. Brehm and others, Attitude Organization and Change. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1960. 109 POSITIVE STIMULUS Throughout history man has made his greatest accomplishments when his creative mind has been free to roam and develop ideas. In ancient Greece, Plato, Socrates and Aristotle developed philo­ sophical theories which remain today as some of man's major con­ tributions to ethical conduct. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey written by the blind poet who sang his works in verse bear witness to the achievements possible by man when he is left free to develop his thoughts. Michaelangelo, Raphael and DaVinci are outstanding examples of the genius of man and the extents to which he can contribute to art forms with native talent and freedom of expression. The great universities, whose purposes are to provide a climate where scholars can freely exchange ideas and attempt to arrive at truth or answers to problems facing man, are another product of a free society. From the time when the first univer­ sity was established at Bologna, free men in their education have constantly re-evaluated society and formulated new theories for social and scientific action. No rigid boundaries are established for the containment of thought and the student is encouraged to challenge existing beliefs with the aim of discovering new truths. This atmosphere of academic freedom has stimulated such men as Hegel, Kant, Spinoza, Dewey and a host of others to develop revolutionary approaches to philosophy and to experiment and apply them to citizens of their age. These same universities have trained scientists whose inventions such as the diesel engine and the telephone and whose theories such as the theory of relativity have been invaluable contributions to man's efforts to solve the secrets of the universe. A free society does not serve as the contributor of knowledge for men must have in their minds certain capacities and bents for creativity, but a free society provides for talented men an un­ paralleled opportunity for experimentation and examination. A free society affords the author and the playwright a place to formulate impressions of society as he views it and to trans­ mit to other human beings, through the medium of the stage or the printed page, those feelings and beliefs. Great authors like Shakespeare, Dante, Hawthorne and Whitman flourished in an environ­ ment which permitted them to express freely their impression of society and its institutions. 110 Critics of men and their organizations could gain.prominence only when a society encourages the expression of all points of view as a means of determining desirable courses of action. From the beginning of times, man has been, in some way, dissatisfied with his environment. Plato, Thomas Paine, Jonathan Swift, Eugene O'Neill and Valter Lippman have used the tools of satire and sar­ casm as weapons to criticize and assist other citizens in a re- evaluation and redirection of their own and other nations' efforts. Our nation is a tribute to freedom. Just as ancient Greece, Great Britian and France experienced their greatest social and in­ tellectual achievement when freedom prevailed, so too our nation since its liberation from Great Britian and its Declaration of Independence has moved forward to become leader of the world. Our free citizens, aware that their freedom offers them the opportunity to determine their own course and success in life, have been spurred on to accomplishments previously considered impossible. Great in­ ventors like Thomas Edison, Henry Ford and Charles Kettering have literally raised themselves by their bootstraps from poverty to wealth. The story of America is a rags to riches adventure in ideas as well as in worldly goods. Here was a nation, small but potentially wealthy, which achieved greatness by granting its citizens freedom of speech and self determination. Many other nations have had the same potential but only in America with its manifold freedoms has such a measure of success been realized. We pride ourselves in living under a government where the individuals or political party out of power can freely criticize the party in charge of the government. The Republicans and their leader, former President Eisenhower, are now raising their voices in opposition to the policies of President Kennedy. At all levels, the freedom indict individuals, parties or policies is accepted and practiced as an inherent right of our form of government. The moving force of each generation is its people; their abilities and desires. Freedom so often is the catalytic agent which hastens developments that might be delayed. But freedom, like any catalyst, cannot be a substitute for forces. If these abilities and desires exist, and they have existed in virtually every society since ancient Greece, then freedom will hasten the progress and achievements of mankind. APPENDIX E CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION OF EXPERIMENTAL STIMULI 111 112 This communication was (check one) _____________ Positive _____________ Negative In evaluating the communications which you have just read, please make a check mark at the appropriate location on each of the following continua. logical :____ :___ :___ :___ : illogical specific____ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ : general clear_______ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ : vague insufficient too much material____ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ : material structurally structurally sound_______ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ : weak interesting :__:___ :___ :___ :___: boring accurate :__ :___ :___ :___ :___: inaccurate Do you have any suggestions which might improve this communication? If you feel there are specific sections which need improvement, please indicate in the margin beside the deficient section. BIBLIOGRAPHY 114 BIBLIOGRAPHY Allport, Gordon W., and Postman, Leo, The Psychology of Rumor. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1947. Anastasl, Anne, Psychological Testing. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1954. Bartlett, Claude, Quay, Lorene and Wrightsman, Lawrence, "A Comparison of Attitude Measurement: Likert Type and Forced-Choice," Educational and Psychological Measurement.” 1960, pp. 699-704. Baruch, Dorothy W., "Aggression During Doll Play in a Preschool," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 11, 1941, pp. 252-259. Bogardus, E. S., "Measuring Social Distance." Journal of Applied Sociology. 9, 1925, pp. 299-308. Bray, Douglas W., "The Prediction of Behavior from Two Attitude Scales," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 45, 1950, pp. 64-84. Brooks, Keith, "The Construction and Testing of a Forced-Choice Scale for Measuring Speaking Achievement," Ph.D. disserta­ tion. The Ohio State University, 1955. Campbell, Donald, "The Indirect Assessment of Social Attitudes," Psychological Bulletin. 47, 1950, pp. 15-38. Cronbach, Lee, Essentials of Psychological Testing. New York: Harper and Brothers, I960. Cromwell, H., "The Relative Effect on Audience Attitude of the First Versus the Second Argumentative Speech of a Series," Speech Monographs. 17, 1950, pp. 105-122. Dubin, Sanford, "Verbal Attitude Scores from Responses Obtained in the Projective Technique," Sociometry. 3, 1940, pp. 24-28. Edwards, Allen L., Experimental Design in Psychological Research. New York: Rinehart and Company, 1950. 115 ________________ . Statistical Analysis. New York: Rinehart and Company, 1958. _______________ and Kenney, Kathryn, "A Comparison of the Thurstone and Likert Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction," Journal of Applied Psychology. 30, 1946, pp. 72-83. Ferguson, George A., Statistical Analysis in Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1959. Festinger, Leon, "A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Evanston, 111. Row Peterson, 1957. Fromme, Allan, "On the Use of Certain Qualitative Methods of Atti­ tude Research: A Study of Opinions on the Methods of Preventing War," Journal of Social Psychology. 13, 1941, pp. 429-459. Garrett, Henry E., Statistics in Psychology and Education. New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1953. Gordon, Leonard V., "A Comparison of the Validities