Challenging the State in Africa MASSOB and the Crisis of Self-Determination in Nigeria Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Philosophie (Dr. phil.) vorgelegt der Philosophischen Fakultät der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Fachbereich Sozialwissenshaften und historische Kulturwissenschaften (Institut für Philosophie) von Herr Godwin Onuoha geb. am 03. March 1974 in Lagos (Nigeria) Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Matthias Kaufmann PD. Dr. Jacqueline Knörr Tag der Verteidigung : TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF MAPS .................................................................................................................................vi ZUSAMMENFASSUNG DER DISSERTATION ....................................................................................vii DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................................xiv CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Context and Problem of the Study ................................................................................................... 2 1.2.1 Why Nigeria? .............................................................................................................2 1.2.2. Why the Igbo/MASSOB? ..........................................................................................6 1.3. A Theoretical Premise ………………………………..……………………………………………………………………9 1.4. Research Questions ……..………………………………………………………………………………………………..13 1.5. Research Methodology ……..………………………………………………………………………………………….14 1.5.1. Qualitative Method ……………….…………………………..………………………………………………15 1.5.2. Data Collection …….....……………………………….……………………………………………………….16 (i) Location of Fieldwork …………………………………………….……………………………………………………………..16 (ii) Ethnography ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….17 (iii) Interviews ………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………….19 (iv) Focus Group Discussion (FGD) ……………………………………………….…………………………………………….20 (v) Secondary Sources ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..22 1.5.3. Data Analysis and Presentation ……………………….…………………….………………………..23 1.6. Organization of the Study ………………………………………..……….…………………….……………………25 1.6.1. Arrangement and Synopsis of Chapters …………………………………….…………..…………25 CHAPTER TWO: SELF-DETERMINATION: A CONCEPTUAL REVIEW 2.0. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..29 2.1. Disciplinary Approaches to the Concept of Self-Determination ………………………..…… 32 2.2. Origin and Evolution of the Concept …………………….…………………………………………………… 35 2.2.1. Self-Determination in the Twentieth Century …………………………………………...……..38 2.2.2. Self-Determination in International Law and Politics ……………………………………….45 2.2.3. The Right to Self-Determination ……………….……………….….………………………………….48 2.2.4. Title-Holders of the Right to Self-Determination ……………………….………………..……51 (i) Nations ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…52 (ii) Indigenous Peoples …………………………….……………………………………………………………………………….55 (iii) Minorities …………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………….57 2.3. Emerging Trends and Contemporary Conceptualization ………………………………………… 60 2.4. Self-Determination and the Scope of the Study …………………………………….…..…………….64 2.4.1. Category A: Independence or Secession from an Existing State …………………..…..66 2.4.2. Category B: Autonomy or Free Association ……………….………………………………..……70 2.4.3. Category C: Integration within an Existing State …………….……….……………………….73 2.5. Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 75 ii CHAPTER THREE: PERSPECTIVES ON IGBO IDENTITY 3.0. Introduction …………………………..……………………………..……………………………………………..77 3.1. The Igbo in Pre-Colonial Context: People, Territory and Identity …………………..……79 3.2. The Igbo in Colonial Context: Identity and Ethnic Nationalism ………………..………….83 3.2.1. The Impact of Colonial Policy …………………….…..…………………………………………………90 3.2.2. The Emergence of Political Organizations and the Tri-Polarization of Nigerian Politics ...........................................................................................................................................93 3.2.3. The Role of Ethnic Unions ……………………………………………………...…………………………97 3.3. Contentious Politicization of Ethno-Nationalist Identities and the Spectre of National Disintegration .................................................................................................103 3.5. Post-Civil War Igbo Identity: A Hypothesis of Ethnic Exclusion ………………………….106 3.6 Conclusion …………………………..………..…………………………………………………………………….114 CHAPTER FOUR: MASSOB AND EMERGENT FORMS OF IGBO NATIONALISM 4.0. Introduction ………………………………….……………………………………………………………………115 4.1. Background: The ‘Igbo Question’ and Emergent Forms of Igbo Nationalism in Nigeria ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….118 4.1.1. Post-Transition Nigeria and the Current Reinvention Process ……………………………………..123 4.2. MASSOB and the Struggle for Self-Determination ………………..…………………………..125 4.1.1. Origin and Objectives ……………………………………………………… ……………………………………..125 4.2.2. Membership, Structure and Tactics ……………………………………….…………………………………..128 4.2.3. Notable Activities of the Movement since Inception ………………………………………………..131 4.2.4. Undertaking Parallel Structures of Governance in Igboland ………………….………………….133 4.3. Encounters and Engagements with the State …………………..…………………………….135 4.4. The Elite Complex and Igbo Establishment .........................................................140 4.5. Contradictions, Structural Limitations and the Fractionalisation of MASSOB ...152 4.6. Conclusion ............................................................................................................154 CHAPTER FIVE: MEMORY POLITICS AND THE ‘REMAKING’ OF IGBO IDENTITY 5.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................155 5.1. Memory, Identity and Nation-Making .................................................................158 5.2. Locating ‘Igbo Memory’ in Post-Civil War Nigeria .............................................163 5.3. Contestations and Competing Narratives on the Nigerian Civil War ..................167 5.3.1. Writing the War ……………………….……….…………………………………………………………….170 5.3.2. Teaching the War ……………………………….……………..………………………………………….174 5.3.3. Memorials and Museums …………………………………….……………………………………...176 5.4. Identity and Nationalist Narratives .....................................................................178 5.4.1. Narratives of the Igbo Nation ……………………………………………………….…………….181 5.4.2. Narratives as Myth of Cultural Identity ……………………………………….…………….…184 5.5. Bringing Memory Back In: Youth and ‘Memory Politics’ ....................................185 5.5.1. The Meaning of the Past: Ralph Uwazuruike and the Struggle for Freedom …188 5.5.2. Memory Repertoires and Political Contention …………………….………………………190 iii (i) The Politics of Commemoration ……………………………………………………………………….………………..191 (ii) Flags and Emblems ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………193 (iii) Biafran Literatures and Materials …………………………………………………………………………………….194 (iv) Biafran Images and Objects ……………………………………………………………………………………………..194 (v) Biafran Attires …………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………….195 (vi) Biafran-Igbo Heroes ………………………………………….………………………………………………………………196 5.6. Conclusion …………………………………………..…………………………………………………………..196 CHAPTER SIX: IGBO DIASPORA, ETHNIC NATIONALISM AND SELF- DETERMINATION 6.0 Introduction ………………………………..………………………………………………………………………198 6.1 Delineating the Concept ..........................................................................................200 6.1.1. From the General to the Particular ………………………………….……………………………..203 6.1.2. Mapping the Igbo Diaspora ……………………………………….………….………………………..204 (i) First Diaspora Period …………………………………………………….……………………………………………………205 (ii) Second Diaspora Period …………………………………………………………………………………………………….206 (iii) Third Diaspora Period ……………………………………………………….………………………………………………207 (iv) Fourth Diaspora Period …………………………………….………………………………………………………………208 6.2. The Igbo Diaspora: Identity, Networks and Associations .....................................208 6.2.1. Diaspora Networks and Associations ……………………….………………………………….210 6.2.2. ‘Internal’ Igbo Diaspora ………………………………….…………………………………………….211 6.2.3. ‘Regional’ Igbo Diaspora ……………….…………………….………………………………………..214 6.2.4. ‘Atlantic’ Igbo Diaspora …………………………………….….………………………………………217 6.3. Igbo Diaspora Nationalism and ‘Homeland’ Politics ...........................................219 6.3.1. Igbo Diaspora and Contemporary Struggles for Self-Determination in Nigeria 220 6.3.2 . MASSOB and the Internationalization of the Struggle for Self-Determination .224 6.3.3 . Igbo Diaspora and Political Activism ………….…………………………………………………226 6.4. Diaspora, Globalisation and Self-Determination ................................................230 6.5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................230 CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................................235 Summary of Key Findings ..................................................................................235 Deductions and Analysis of Findings .................................................................238