The Political Campaign Industry and the Emergence of Social Media in Post-authoritarian Indonesian Electoral Politics Muninggar Sri Saraswati, B.A. (Universitas Gadjah Mada) M.A. (Universität Hamburg) This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Murdoch University 2016 ii I declare that this thesis is my own account of my research and contains as its main content work that has not previously been submitted for a degree at any tertiary education institution. Muninggar Sri Saraswati iii EXPLANATORY NOTES Indonesians may use a single name (for example, Suharto) or multiple names (for example, Megawati Sukarnoputri or Siti Muhyina Muin). In this dissertation the individuals with multiple names are referred to by that part of their names, which are generally known in Indonesia. For example, Prabowo Subianto is shortened to Prabowo while Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono is shortened to Yudhoyono. In addition, following Indonesian practice, this thesis uses some nickname for individuals commonly known by such to the public, for example, Jokowi for Joko Widodo, Foke for Fauzi Bowo and Ahok for Basuki Tjahaja Purnama. This dissertation uses the post-1972 Indonesian spelling system (for example, ‘Sukarno’ instead of ‘Soekarno’). Unless otherwise noted, all quoted translations from Indonesian to English were undertaken by the author. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Doing a PhD is not easy to most students. But for Indonesian women with little children working on a PhD project in a foreign country, its complexity is multiplied. By any mean, it is no exaggeration. Nonetheless, this is an investment that worth every single effort that had been made in the process. This dissertation is dedicated to fellow Indonesian women with little children wishing to pursue doctoral studies outside their home country. The completion of my dissertation was not possible without the assistance of a great number of people, both in direct and indirect ways. Two persons that I should mention first are my supervisors, Prof. David T. Hill and Prof. Vedi R. Hadiz. Since I began my candidature in Murdoch University in 2012, Prof. David T. Hill’s continuous encouragement and support has guided me through my study. His remarkable attention to detail as well as his passion and vast knowledge on media and society in Indonesia have been an influence on my scholarly development. Above all, he shows the true example of humility, a particular character I found uncommon in academia. I am very honored to become his last supervisee. Prof. Vedi R. Hadiz has played a big role in the evolution of my thesis. His uncompromising scholarly advice has contributed heavily not only to my dissertation, but also my intellectual and personal development. His strong v academic ethics, his command of meticulous academic writing and his sense of humor have added me to his many admirers. A special appreciation is due to both of them, for continuing this supervision after Pak David’s retirement and Pak Vedi’s departure from Murdoch University. Their trust, patience and commitment to supervising me created one of the most encouraging experiences I have had in my academic life. I am forever indebted to them. Throughout my study, Murdoch University’s Asia Research Centre (ARC) has proven to be a centre of academic excellence. Colleagues at the ARC contributed greatly to this study, through personal discussions, seminar comments and their scholarly works. My deepest gratitude goes particularly for Tamara Dent, Sia Kozowksi and Inga Scarpello for their valuable administrative supports. The support from the ARC’s directors and fellows Prof. Caroline Hughes, Prof. Kevin Hewison, Prof. Garry Rodan, Dr. Jeffrey Wilson, Assoc. Prof. Shahar Hameiri, Assoc. Prof. Terence Lee, Prof. Jim Warren, Assoc. Prof. Carol Warren, Dr. Jane Hutchinson, Dr. Jacqui Baker, Dr. Ian Wilson and Dr. James Boyd are highly appreciated. Fellow students and alumni Agung, Airlangga, Annabelle, Asep, Beka, Charan, Charlotte, Dirk, Diswandi, Fabio, Faris, Inaya, Indra, Jelly, Jom, Lian, Melissa, Nurul, Nicole, Pat, Rainny, Rod, Rendro, Sassa, Sait, Shaomin, Thao, Vitti, Yanchun, the late Yanti, and, particularly Jemi, have provided friendships, encouragement and life lessons in various ways I am very thankful vi for. Bec Donaldson also deserves my appreciation for her assistance in proofreading my drafts and providing valuable insights on academic writing. My study was funded by DIKTI and Murdoch University. DIKTI funded the first three years of my study in ways that somehow help me appreciate my spiritual side, while Murdoch University has generously funded the fourth year of my study. Dale Banks has provided administrative support that I appreciated much. I thank Kopertis IV and Swiss German University for allowing me to pursue my study. I am also deeply grateful for the support of I Gusti Ngurah Putra, Prof. Ikrar Nusa Bhakti, Prof. Ilah Sailah, the late Prof. Hans Kleinsteuber, Prof. Bambang Sudibyo and Prof. Retno Sudibyo. This dissertation is greatly indebted to interviewees and anonymous insiders in Jakarta and Makassar who, despite their busy schedules, always found time to share their experiences that deepened my interest in the field of media and society. Anita Rachman, Andi Hajramurni, Asri Abdullah and Anom Astika are highly appreciated for helping me establish contact with my interviewees, particularly in Makassar. Special appreciation goes to Dr. Suryoatmojo Saleh and his team in Jakarta for taking care of me in hospital during a period of my field research and supplying the medication I needed afterward. I also extend my appreciation to those in my support system while I was in Perth and Jakarta, among others, my three sisters vii Afi, Ari, Ratri and their respective families; my mother-in-law Hamiah Sunarto and the Pondok Aren families; the Atmowikartos families; the HM families; Mulberry Tree Kindy and Child Care in Leeming; Bateman Primary School; LOSCCI; JMS; MUISA, and the family of Pak Ronny and Ibu Ani. Their contributions to provide the space I needed to complete my PhD are highly appreciated. My parents, Adan Mulyono and Asri Rochtun, have given significant support, love and prayers throughout my study. I must extend special gratitude to my mother, who has taught me to stand on my feet. Despite a massive stroke she suffered in the end of 2014 that cost most of her ability to speak, my mother continued to encourage me to finish my study. I am looking forward to supporting her to regain some of her speech ability and living a quality of life as a stroke survivor. I thank my husband Tri Hartanto, who, despite our long distance relationship, has been my solid ground and reliable source of strength throughout this process. Finally, this dissertation would not have been possible without the contribution of my daughter, Ariadne Indira Saraswati Hartanto. Not only a trusted little comrade, she was also my main source of distractions from the PhD works that has kept my sanity fairly intact. I regret that she had to live a part of her formative years without me by her side. One day, I hope, she can learn a thing or two from her mother’s experience. viii ABSTRACT This dissertation analyses the emergence of social media for electoral campaigning in post-authoritarian Indonesia. Using a critical political economy perspective, it examines the interactions between social media, the political campaign industry, which is understood as a product of “the cross-development of political and commercial persuasion techniques in the 20th century” (Stockwell, 2000, p. 3), and electoral players. This thesis evaluates how the political campaign industry intersects with social media-enabled production and distribution of campaign messages (content), audience (users) mobilisation and labour organisation. It also assesses the impact of the political campaign industry’s social media work upon the web of relations between candidates, donors and voters during electoral periods. The findings confirm that social media has enabled the growing Indonesian political campaign industry to develop social media campaigning services that have been adopted widely in Indonesian elections. These findings contradict previous studies that have suggested that social media contribute to the nurturance of democracy in contemporary Indonesia by enabling citizens to discuss alternative issues to elite-generated ones carried by conventional media (Nuswantoro, 2014; Suaedy, 2014). By contrast, this dissertation demonstrates that during electoral campaign periods social media were not autonomous from heavy industry-driven engineering. Instead, social media enabled the political campaign industry to further encroach upon Indonesian electoral politics and thereby generate greater profits for the industry. ix These strategies were made possible because social media electoral campaigning serves not only a s practical tool of persuasion but also a new mechanism to manage the temporary converging interests of political, economic and cultural forces during electoral campaign periods. Put differently, with the assistance of the political campaign industry, Indonesian political economy elites have been able to capture social media to safeguard their social ascendancy through competitive elections. x TABLE OF CONTENT Declaration ......................................................................................................... iii Explanatory Notes .............................................................................................. iv Acknowledgement